howfar是什么意思far在线翻译读音例句-pitcher
2023年4月4日发(作者:cctv9英语)
生物工程专业英语
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LessonOne(4学时)
InsidetheLivingCell:Structureand
FunctionofInternalCellParts
教学目的:使学生掌握细胞的组成结构(各种细胞器以及它们在细胞中的位置),
以及结构与功能之间的关系。各细胞器及功能相关英语词汇以及主要用法。
教学重点:各细胞器的概念和功能,及相关英语词汇的掌握
教学难点:专业英语词汇的记忆
讲授方法:以学生翻译为主,老师讲解相关专业知识辅助学生理解
授课时间:3月22日;3月29日
教学内容:
Cytoplasm:TheDynamic,MobileFactory
细胞质:动力工厂
Mothe
massofacellconsistsofthissemifluidsubstance,whichisboundedontheoutsidebythe
llesaresuspendedwithinit,supportedbythefilamentousnetwork
vedinthecytoplasmicfluidarenutrients,ions,solubleproteins,
andothermaterialsneededforcellfunctioning.
生命的大部分特征表现在细胞质的特征上。细胞质大部分由半流体物质组成,并由细胞膜
(原生质膜)包被。细胞器悬浮在其中,并由丝状的细胞骨架支撑。细胞质中溶解了大量
的营养物质,离子,可溶蛋白以及维持细胞生理需求的其它物质。
TheNucleus:InformationCentral(细胞核:信息中心)
Theeukaryoticcellnucleusisthelargestorganelleandhousesthegeneticmaterial(DNA)on
chromosomes.(Inprokaryotesthehereditarymaterialisfoundinthenucleoid.)Thenucleus
alsocontainsoneortwoorganelles-thenucleoli-thatplayaroleincelldivision.A
pore-perforatedsaccalledthenuclearenvelopeseparatesthenucleusanditscontentsfromthe
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oleculescanpassthroughthenuclearenvelope,butlargermoleculessuch
asmRNAandribosomesmustenterandexitviathepores.
真核细胞的细胞核是最大的细胞器,细胞核对染色体组有保护作用(原核细胞的遗传物质
存在于拟核中)。细胞核含有一或二个核仁,核仁促进细胞分裂。核膜贯穿许多小孔,小
分子可以自由通过核膜,而象mRNA和核糖体等大分子必须通过核孔运输。
Organelles:SpecializedWorkUnits(细胞器:特殊的功能单位)
Alleukaryoticcellscontainmostofthevariouskindsoforganelles,andeachorganelle
llesdescribedinthissectioninclude
ribosomes,theendoplasmicreticulum,theGolgicomplex,vacuoles,lysosomes,mitochondria,
andtheplastidsofplantcells.
所有的真核细胞都含有多种细胞器,每个细胞器都有其特定功能。本节主要介绍核糖体,
内质网,高尔基体系,液泡,溶酶体,线粒体和植物细胞中的质体。
Thenumberofribosomeswithinacellmayrangefromafewhundredtomanythousands.
Thisquantityreflectsthefactthat,ribosomesarethesitesatwhichaminoacidsareassembled
eteribosomeiscomposedofone
proteinsynthesisthetwosubunitsmovealongastrand
ofmRNA,\"reading\"thegeneticsequencecodedinitandtranslatingthatsequenceintoprotein.
SeveralribosomesmaybecomeattachedtoasinglemRNAstrand;suchacombinationiscalled
llularproteinsaremanufacturedonribosomesinthecytoplasm.
Exportableproteinsandmembraneproteinsareusuallymadeinassociationwiththe
endoplasmicreticulum.
核糖体的数量变化从几百到几千,核糖体是氨基酸组装成蛋白质的重要场所。完整的核
糖体由大亚基和小亚基组成。核糖体沿着mRNA移动并阅读遗传密码,翻译成蛋白质。一
条mRNA上可能有多个核糖体,称多聚核糖体。大多数细胞蛋白是由细胞质中核糖体生产。
输出蛋白和膜蛋白通常与内质网有关。
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Theendoplasmicreticulum,alacyarrayofmembranoussacs,tubules,andvesicles,maybe
eitherrough(RER)orsmooth(SER).Bothtypesplayrolesinthesynthesisandtransportof
,whichisstuddedwithpolysomes,alsoseemstobethesourceofthe
nuclearenvelopeafteracelldivides.
内质网,带有花边的生物囊,有管状,泡状之分,以及光滑和粗糙面区别。两种都与蛋
白质的合成和运输有关。粗糙内质网上分布许多核糖体,也可能提供细胞分裂后所需的细
胞膜。
SERlackspolysomes;itisactiveinthesynthesisoffatsandsteroidsandintheoxidationof
pesofendoplasmicreticulumserveascompartments
withinthecellwherespecificproductscanbeisolatedandsubsequentlyshuntedtoparticular
areasinoroutsidethecell.
光滑内质网上无核糖体,主要作用是脂肪和类固醇的合成以及细胞内有毒物质的氧化。
两种内质网合成的产物在其中进行分流或运输到细胞外。
Transportvesiclesmaycarryexportablemoleculesfromtheendoplasmicreticulumtoanother
membranousorganelle,theGolgicomplexmoleculesaremodified
andpackagedforexportoutofthecellorfordeliveryelsewhereinthecytoplasm.
运输小泡能够将可运输分子从内质网运输到高尔基复合体上。在高尔基复合体中修饰,
包装后输出细胞或传递到细胞质中的其他场所。
Vacuolesincellsappeartobehollowsacsbutareactuallyfilledwithfluidandsoluble
tprominentvacuolesappearinplantcellsandserveaswaterreservoirs
esinanimalcellscarryout
phagocytosis(theintakeofparticulatematter)andpinocytosis(vacuolardrinking).
细胞中的液泡好象是中空的,但实际上充满了液体和可溶分子。最典型的液泡存在于植
物细胞中,储备水,糖以及其它分子。动物中的液泡起吞噬和胞饮作用。
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Asubsetofvacuolesaretheorganellesknownaslysosomes,whichcontaindigestive
enzymes(packagedinlysosomesintheGolgicomplex)thatcanbreakdownmostbiological
ttodigestfoodparticlesandtodegradedamagedcellparts.
溶酶体是液泡亚单位,含有消化酶,降解大部分生物大分子。消化食物微粒和降解损伤
的细胞残片。
Mitotion,
plantcellscontainplastidsthatutilizelightenergytomanufacturecarbohydratesintheprocess
thelargesurfaceareaprovidedbytheinnercristaeofmitochondria
ondriaareself-replicating,andprobablythey
aretheevolutionarydescendantsofwhatwereoncefree-livingprokaryotes.
线粒体是细胞中化学产能的场所。另外,植物细胞中的质体在光合作用中利用光能产生
碳水化合物,线粒体内嵴上提供了很大的表面积并分布着产ATP酶。线粒体自我复制,并
且可能是自由生活的原核生物在进化中形成的后代。
Therearetwotypesofplastids:leucoplasts,whichlackpigmentsandserveasstoragesites
forstarch,proteins,andoils;andchromoplasts,timportant
chromoplastsarechloroplasts-organellesthatcontainthechlorophyllusedinphotosynthesis.
Theinternalstructureofchloroplastsincludesstacksofmembranescalledgrana,whichare
embeddedinamatrixcalledthestroma.
质体有两种类型:白色体,缺乏色素,是淀粉,蛋白质和油的储备场所;色质体,含有
色素。叶绿体是最重要的色质体,含有与光合作用有关的叶绿素。叶绿体的内部结构是由
多层膜形成的叶绿体基粒,其中包埋在基质中的基粒称子座。
TheCytoskeleton(细胞骨架)
Alleukaryoticcellshaveacytoskeleton,whichisaconvolutedlatticeworkoffilamentsand
tubulesthatappearstofillallavailablespaceinthecellandprovidessupportforvariousother
portionofthecytoskeletonconsistsofthreadlikemicrofilaments
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einvolvedinmanytypesof
dprotein,myosin,isinvolveinthe
rmainstructuralcomponentofthecytoskeletonconsistsof
microtubules,whicharecomposedoftheglobularproteintubulinandtogetheractas
eletalintermediatefilamentsappearto
oenzymessuchasmyosin,dynein,and
kinesininteractwiththecytoskeletalfilamentsandtubulestogenerateforcesthatcause
movements.
所有的细胞都有细胞骨架,网络结构的纤丝充满了它所能触及的全部空间并且对细胞器提
供支持作用。细胞骨架大部分由微丝组成,微丝主要由可收缩的肌动蛋白组成。动植物细
胞的许多种类型细胞内运动与肌动蛋白有关。第二类蛋白是肌球蛋白,它与肌肉细胞的收
缩有关。细胞骨架的另一个主要结构成分是微管,由球状的微管蛋白组成,象脚手架一般
维持细胞的稳定形态。细胞骨架的中间丝提供了细胞质伸缩动力。机械酶,例如,肌球蛋
白,动力蛋白,驱动蛋白与微丝,微管相互作用产生动力而引起细胞运动。
CellularMovements(细胞运动
Althoughthecytoskeletonprovidessomestability稳固tocells,itsmicrotubules
英[maikrutju:bju:l]andfilaments丝状物andtheirassociatedproteinsenablecellstomove
bycreeping爬行orgliding滑动.Suchmovementsrequireasolid固体的substrateto
whichthecellcanadhere附着andcanbeguidedbythegeometrydimitri]几何形状ofthe
llsalsoexhibit[izibit]展览chemotaxis,kemtksis趋药性theability
tomovetowardorawayfromthesourceofadiffusing扩散chemical.
尽管细胞骨架提供了细胞的某些稳定性,微丝,微管及相关蛋白能使细胞爬行或滑动。
这种运动需要固体基质依托并通过表面几何形状的改变而运动。某些细胞具备趋药性,即
趋向或逃离扩散开的化学源。
Certaineukaryoticcellscanswimfreelyinliquidenvironments,propelledbywhiplikecilia
[sili]纤毛orflagella英[fldel鞭毛.Bothciliaandflagellahavethesameinternalstructure:
ninedoublets(pairsofmicrotubules)arearrangedinaringandextendthelengthoftheciliumor
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flagellum,iliumorflagellum
growsonlyfromthecellsurfacewhereabasalbody基体ntisbasedonthe
activitiesoftinydynein动力蛋白sidearmsthatextendfromoneofthemicrotubulesofeach
doublet成对的东西.
某些真核细胞能在液体液体中自由运动,由纤毛或鞭毛推动。纤毛和鞭毛具有同样的内
部结构:九个双微管环形排列,纵向延伸,环中心是两个或以上微管组成。纤毛或鞭毛从
细胞表面的基体出生长,双微管的动力蛋白臂从一侧延伸到另一侧而引起运动。
Nutrients,proteins,andothermaterialswithinmostplantcellsaremovedaboutvia
cessoccursasmyosinmaiusin肌凝蛋白proteinsattachedto
organelles细胞器,小器官pushagainstmicrofilamentsarrayed[rei]展示throughoutthecell.
Microfilamentsandmicrotubulesareresponsibleforalmostallmajorcytoplasmicmovements.
Duringcelldivision,microtubulesofthespindleassembled集合,收集fromtubutinsubunits
nearorganellescalledcentriolesmovethechromosomes.
大部分植物细胞的营养,蛋白质和其它物质由细胞质流运输。这个过程是由于依附在细
胞器上的肌球蛋白反推排列在细胞周围的微丝形成的。绝大部分细胞质运动由微丝和微管
完成。在细胞分裂期间,中心粒周围的由微管蛋白亚基装配形成的纺锤体微管移向染色体。
课后作业:第一第二篇阅读材料
答案:1B,2C,3B,4B,5D,6c;1A,2B,3D,4A
Glossary
cytoplasm(细)胞质
Thelivingcontentsofacellbounded
externallybytheplasmalemma,includingan
aqueousgroundsubstance(hyaloplasm,cell
sap,orcellmatrix)containingorganellesand
variousinclusionsbutexcludingthenucleus
andvisiblevacuoles.
cytoskeleton细胞骨架
Ofeukaryoticcells,aninternal\"skeleton\".
Itsmicrotubulesandothercomponents
structurallysupportthecell,organizeand
cytoskeletonalsohelpsfree-livingcellsmove
throughtheirenvironment.
nucleus细胞核,核(复数
nuclei)
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Theorganelleoftheeukaryotecellthat
containsthechromosomesandhence
ultimatelycontrolscellularactivityand
inheritancethroughtheactivityofthegenetic
material,DNA
chromosome染色体
ADNA-histonethreadresidinginthenucleus
romosomepossessestwo
telomeresandacentromere,andsome
proteinsareinvariablyassociatedwiththe
chromosome.
nucleoid拟核,类核,核质体
TheDNA-containingareaofaprokaryote
cell,analogoustotheeukaryotenucleusbut
notmembranebounded.
nucleoli核仁(单数
nucleolus)
Nuclearstructurescomposedofcompletedor
partiallycompletedribosomesandthe
specificpartsofchromosomesthatcontain
theinfon-nationfortheirconstruction.
nuclearenvelope核膜,核被膜
Adoublemembrane(twolipidbilayersand
associatedproteins)thatistheoutermost
portionofacellnucleus.
ribosome核糖体
Smallstructurescomposedoftwoproteinand
ribonucleicacidsubunitsinvolvedinthe
assemblyofproteinsfromaminoacids.
polysome多核糖体
Ofproteinsynthesis,severalribosomesall
translatingthesamemessengerRNA
molecule,oneaftertheother.
endoplasmicreticulum内质网
Foldedmembranesandtubesthroughoutthe
eukaryoticcellthatprovidealargesurface
uponwhichchemicalactivitiestakeplace.
Golgicomplex高尔基复合体
Astackofflattened,smooth,membranous
sacs;thesiteofsynthesisandpackagingof
certainmoleculesineukaryoticcells.
vacuole液泡
Storagecontainerwithinthecytoplasmofa
cellhavingasurroundingmembrane.
phagocytosis吞噬作用
Theprocessbywhichthecellwrapsarounda
particleandengulfsit.
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pinocytosis胞饮作用
Theprocessbywhichacellengulfssome
moleculesdissolvedinwater
lysosome溶酶体
Aspecializedorganellethatholdsamixture
ofhydrolyticenzymes.
mitochondrion线粒体(复数
mitochondria)Amembranousorganelle
resemblingasmallbagwithalargerbag
resemblingasmallbagwithalargerbag
insidethatisfoldedbackonitself;servesas
thesiteofaerobiccellularrespiration.
plastid质体
Anorganellepresentinallplantsexcept
bacteria,blue-greenalgae,andfungi;itis
enclosedbytwomembranes(theenvelope)
andhasvariousfunctions
chloroplast叶绿体
Aplastidinwhichphotosynthesisiscarried
plastsoccurinallphotosynthetic
organismsexceptphotosyntheticbacteria
blue-greenalgae.
stroma基质,子座(复数
stromata)
Regionwithinachloroplastthathasno
chlorophyll.
microfilament微丝,纤丝
Long,fiberlikestructuresmadeofproteinand
foundincells,oftenincloseassociationwith
themicrotubules;providestructuralsupport
andenablemovement.
actin肌动蛋白
le
cells,actininteractswithanotherprotein,
myosin,tobringaboutcontraction.
myosin[\'maiesin]肌球蛋白
Aproteinthat,withactin,constitutesthe
principalelementofthecontractileapparatus
ofmuscle.
microtubute微管
Small,hollowtubesofproteinthatfunction
throughoutthecytoplasmtoprovide
structuralsupportandenablemovement.
tubulin微管蛋白
Aproteinthatisthemajorconstituentof
microtubules.
dynein动力蛋白,动素
Agroupofatleastfourdistinctproteins
foundintheflagellaandmicrotubulesof
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eukaryoticcellsandpossessingATPase
activity.
chemotaxis趋化性
Alocomotorymovementofanorganismor
cellinresponseto,anddirectedby,an
directionalstimulus.
cilia纤毛
Numerousshort,hairlikestructuresprojecting
fromthecellsurfacethatenablelocomotion.
flagella鞭毛(单数flagellum)
Long,hairlikestructuresprojectingfromthe
cellsurfacethatenablelocomotion.
basalbody基体
Abodyidenticalinstructuretoacentriole,
foundalwaysatthebaseofa
ciliumoreukaryoteflagellum.
centriole中心粒
Anorganellelocatedclosetothenucleusin
mostanimalandlowerplantcellsbutabsent
fromprokaryotesandhigherplants.
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LessonTwo(2学时)
Photosynthesis
教学目的:使学生掌握细胞的光合作用机理,光合系统Ⅰ与光合系统Ⅱ结构与
功能之间的关系。相关英语词汇以及主要用法。
教学重点:光合作用中相关的概念和功能,及相关英语词汇的掌握
教学难点:专业英语词汇的记忆
讲授方法:以学生翻译为主,老师讲解相关专业知识辅助学生理解
授课时间:4月5日
教学内容:
Photosynthesisoccursonlyinthechlorophyllchlorophyll叶绿素-containingcellsofgreen
plants,algae藻,andcertainpro力透纸背 tists原生生物l,itisaprocessthat
convee
pointofviewofchemistryandenergetics,s然
而cellular细胞的respiration呼吸ishighlyexergonic吸收能量的andreleasesenergy,
photosynthesis光合作用requiresenergyandishighlyendergonic.
光合作用只发生在含有叶绿素的绿色植物细胞,海藻,某些原生动物和细菌之中。总体
来说,这是一个将光能转化成化学能,并将能量贮存在分子键中,从化学和动能学角度来
看,它是细胞呼吸作用的对立面。细胞呼吸作用是高度放能的,光合作用是需要能量并高
吸能的过程。
PhotosynthesisstartswithCO
2
andH
2
Oasrawmaterialsandproceedsthroughtwosetsof
irstset,calledthelight-dependentreactions,watermoleculesar爱情语录经典短句 e
split裂开(oxidized),0
2
isreleased,eactionsmust
takeplaceinthepresenceof在面前econdset,calledlight-independent
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reactions,CO
2
isreduced(viatheadditionofHatoms)hemical
eventsrelyontheelectroncarrierNADPHandATPgeneratedbythefirstsetofreactions.
光合作用以二氧化碳和水为原材料并经历两步化学反应。第一步,称光反应,水分子分
解,氧分子释放,ATP和NADPH形成。此反应需要光能的存在。第二步,称暗反应,二氧
化碳被还原成碳水化合物,这步反应依赖电子载体NADPH以及第一步反应产生的ATP。
theenzymesandpigments色素
forthelightdependentreactionsareembedded深入的内含的inthethylakoid类囊体
membrane膜隔膜ofchloroplasts叶绿体.Thedarkreactionstakeplaceinthestroma.基质
两步反应都发生在叶绿体中。光反应需要的大部分酶和色素包埋在叶绿体的类囊体膜
上。暗反应发生在基质中。
HowLightEnergyReachesPhotosyntheticCells(光合细胞如何吸收光能的)
Theenergyinlightphotonsinthevisiblepartofthespectrumcanbecapturedbybiological
mentchlorophyllinplantcellsabsorbsphotons
withinaparticularabsorptionspectrumsstatementoftheamountoflightabsorbedby
ghtisabsorbeditaltersthearrangementof
edenergyofthephotonbooststheenergy
cthe
light-dependentreactionsofphotosynthesis,astheabsorbingmoleculereturnstotheground
state,the\"excess\"excitationenergyistransmittedtoothermoleculesandstoredaschemical
energy.
生物分子能捕获可见光谱中的光能。植物细胞中叶绿素在不同光波下吸收部分吸收光
谱。在吸收分子中,光的作用使分子中的电子发生重排。光子的能量激活了分子的能量状
态,使其从稳定态进入不稳定的激活态。
Allphotosyntheticorganismscontainvariousclassesofchlorophyllsandoneormore
carotenoid(accessory)ofpigment
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trikinganyoneofthe
pigmentmoleculesisfunneledtoaspecialchlorophyllamolecule,termedareaction-center
chlorophyll,otosyntheticorganisms
possesstwotypesofreaction-centerchlorophylls,P680andP700,eachassociatedwithan
ggregationsareknownrespectively
asphotosystemⅠ(P700)andphotosystemⅡ(P680).
所有的光合作用生物含有不同等级的叶绿素和一个或多个类胡萝卜素(光合作用的辅助
色素)。称作天线复合体的色素分子群存在于类囊体中。激活色素分子的光能进入叶绿素
反应中心,其直接参与光合作用。大部分光反应细胞器拥有两套反应中心,P680和P700,
每个光系统都含有一个电子受体和电子供体。这些集合体就是大家熟识的光合系统Ⅰ和光
合系统Ⅱ。
TheLight-DependentReaction:ConvertingSolarEnergyintoChemical-BondEnergy
光反应:光能转化成化学键能
Thephotosystemsofthelight-dependentreactionsareresponsibleforthepackagingoflight
ckagingtakesplacethrougha
seriesofoxidationreductionreactionssetinmotionwhenlightstrikestheP680reactioncenter
inphotosystemⅡ.Inthisinitialeventwatermoleculesarecleaved,oxygenisreleased,and
lectronsareacceptedfirstbyplastoquinoneandthenbyaseries
hfourelectronsthatpassdown
thechain,tacceptorinthechainistheP700reactioncenterof
photosystemⅠ.Atthispointincomingphotonsboosttheenergyoftheelectrons,andtheyare
oxinisthenreoxidized,andthecoenzymeNADP+isreducedto
generatedpreviouslyandtheNADPHthentakepartinthelight
independentreactions.
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光反应的光系统将光能转化成化学复合物ATP和NADPH。当光激活光系统Ⅱ的光反应中
心时,通过一系列的氧化还原反应实现能量的传递。反应开始时,水被分解,氧被释放并
提供电子。电子首先传递给质体醌,然后通过一系列载体形成的电子传递链。每传递4个
电子,形成2个ATP。最后一个受体存在于光反应系统Ⅰ的反应中心里。此处光子激活电
子,电子传递给铁氧还蛋白。铁氧还蛋白再氧化,并且辅酶NADP+还原成NADPH。早期产
生的ATP和NADPH进入暗反应。
TheproductionofATPfromthetransportofelectronsexcitedbylightenergydownan
-wayflowofelectrons
throughphotosystemsIIandIiscallednoncyclicphotophosphorylation;plantsalsoderive
additionalATPthroughcyclicphotophosphorylation,inwhichsomeelectronsareshunted
backthroughtheelectrontransportchainbetweenphotosystemsⅡandⅠ.
由电子传递链偶连产生ATP的过程称为光合磷酸化。通过光合系统Ⅱ流经光合系统Ⅰ的
电子路径称非循环式光合磷酸化;植物通过循环式光合磷酸化获得额外的ATP,一些电子
在光合系统Ⅰ和Ⅱ之间的电子传递链中回流。
TheLight-IndependentReactions:BuildingCarbohydrates
暗反应:碳水化合物的形成
Inthelight-independentreactionsofphotosynthesis,whicharedrivenbyATPandNADPH,
C0
2
ctionsarealsoknownastheCalvin-Bensoncycle.
AtmosphericCO
2
,isfixedasitreactswithribulosebiphosphate(RuBP),areactionthatis
uctionOfC0
2
to
carbohydrate(fructosediphosphate)y,
RUBPisregeneratedsothatthecyclemaycontinue.
由ATP和NADPH驱动的暗反应中,二氧化碳转化成碳水化合物。即卡尔文循环。二磷酸
核酮糖固定二氧化碳,由二磷酸核酮糖羧化酶催化。
Oxygen:AnInhibitorofphotosynthesis(氧:光合作用的抑制因子)
生物工程专业英语
14
Highlevelsofoxygeninplantcellscandisruptphotosynthesisandcanalsocause
photorespiration-aninefficientfunofthedarkreactionsinwhich0
2
isfixedratherthanC0
2
and
nocarbohydrateisproduced.
ReprievefromPhotorespiration:TheC
4
Pathway
MostplantsareC
3
plants;theyexperiencedecreasedcarbohydrateproductionunderhot,dry
4
plants,however,special
leafanatomyandauniquebiochemicalpathwayenabletheplanttothriveinandconditions.
ThusC
4
plantslessenphotorespirationbycarryingoutphotosynthesisonlyincellsthatare
insulatedfromhighlevelsofCO
2
.Theyalsopossessanovelmechanismforcarbonfixation.
大部分植物是碳3植物,在高温干旱条件下,由于光呼吸作用而使碳水化合物的合成降低。而在大多数
的碳4植物中,由于叶脉的特殊构造和独特的化学路径使植物依然很茂盛。这是碳固定的一个新机制。
课后作业:第一篇阅读材料
答案:1B,2A,3A,4D,5C,6c
Glossary
生物工程专业英语
15
light-dependentreactions光反应-
Thefirststageinphotosynthesis,drivenby
onsthattrapthesun\'s
energypasstheenergytohigh-energycarriers
suchasATPorNADPH,whereitisstoredin
chemicalbonds.
light-independentreactions暗反应
Thesecondstageofphotosynthesis,also
calledtheCalvin-Bensoncycle,whichdoes
thesixstepsofthe
cycle,carbonisfixedandcarbohydratesare
formed.
chloroplast叶绿体
Aplastidinwhichphotosynthesisiscarried
plastsoccurinallphotosynthetic
organismsexceptphotosyntheticbacteriaand
blue-greenalgae.
absorptionspectrum吸收光谱,吸收谱
Thespectrumobtainedwhenradiation
(light,ultravioletradiation,etc.)fromasource
givingacontinuousspectrumispassed
throughasubstance.
Calvin-Bensoncycle卡尔文本森循环
Cyclicreactionsthatarethe\"synthesis\"part
ofthelight-independentreactionsof
plants,RUBP,or
someothercompoundtowhichcarbonhas
beenaffixed,undergoesrearrangementsthat
leadtoformat碛中作译文及注释 ionofasugarphosphateandto
leruns
onATPandNADPHfromlight-dependent
reactions.
carotenoid类胡萝卜素
Light-sensitive,accessorypigmentsthat
transferabsorbedenergytochlorophylls.
Theyabsorbvioletandbluewave-lengthsbut
transmitred,orange,andyellow.
chlorophyll叶绿素
Thegreensubstanceofplantsbywhich
photosynthesisisaccomplished;itis
usuallylocalizedinintracellularorganelles
calledchloroplasts.
cyclicphotophosphorylation
环形光合磷酸化(作用)
Cyclicphotophosphorylationiscoupledto
cyclicelectronflow,inwhichATPistheonly
product.
C
3
plant三碳植物
Aplantinwhichthelight-independent
reactionsofphotosynthesisstartwitha
antsareC
3
plants.
C
4
plant四碳植物
Aplantsuchascorninwhichthelight
independentreactionsofphotosynthesisstar
withafour-carboncompound.
生物工程专业英语
16
noncyclicphotophosphorylation
非环形光合磷酸化作用
Noncyclicphotophosphorylationiscoupled
tononcyclicelectronflow,theelectronsbeing
usedtoreduceNADP+aswellastomake
ATP.
photon光子
Aparticlethathaszeromassorchargeand
unitspin,thequantumoftheelectromagnetic
fieldandcarrieroftheelectromagneticforce.
photophosphorylation光合磷酸化作用
ThesynthesisofATPfromphosphateand
ADPduringphotosynthesis,usinglight
energy.
photorespiration光呼吸
Alight-dependenttypeofrespirationthat
occursinmostphotosyntheticplantsand
differsfromnormal(ordark)respiration.
photosynthesis光合作用
Thesynthesisoforganiccompoundsby
reductionofcarbondioxideusinglightenergy
absorbedbychorophyll.
photosystem光合系统
Oneoftheclustersoflight-trapping
pigmentsembeddedinphotosynthetic
ystemIoperatesduring
thecyclicpathway;photosystemⅡoperates
duringboththecyclicandnoncyclic
sebiphosphate(RUBP)核
酮糖二磷酸
Acompoundwithabackboneoffive
carbonatomsthatisrequiredforcarbon
fixationintheCalvin-Bensoncycleof
photosynthesis.
thylakoid类囊体
Oneofanumberofflattenedfluid-filledsacs
thatformthephotosyntheticlamellarsystem
ofchloroplasts,photosyntheticbacteria,and
blue-greenalgae.
生物工程专业英语
17
LessonThree(2学时)
CellularReproduction:MitosisandMeiosis
教学目的:使学生掌握细胞的有丝分裂和无丝分裂的作用机理,有丝分裂和无
丝分裂之间的区别和相同点。相关英语词汇以及主要用法。
教学重点:有丝分裂和无丝分裂中相关的概念和功能,及相关英语词汇的掌握
教学难点:专业英语词汇的记忆
讲授方法:以学生翻译为主,老师讲解相关专业知识辅助学生理解
授课时间:4月12日
教学内容:
TheNucleusandChromosomes
thenucleusarethe
chroretches
ofthecontinuousDNAmoleculewindaroundtheseclustersofproteins,orhistones,forming
ilingandsupercoilingproducesadense
ngstrandofDNAcombineswithhistonesandnonhistone
proteinstomakeupthesubstancechromatin.
细胞核是贮藏遗传信息的主要场所。DNA盘绕成螺旋线以及相关的成簇蛋白质。DNA
螺旋线缠绕成簇的组蛋白形成珠链状的核小体。这些螺旋和超螺旋形成致密的染色体组结
构。每个长链DNA与组蛋白和非组蛋白一起构成染色质物质。
Apictorialdisplayofanorganism\'schromosomesinthecoiled,condensedstateisknown
yperevealthatinmostcellsallbutsexchromosomesarepresentas
twocopies,-sexchromosomesarecalledautosomes.
生物工程专业英语
18
Organismswhosecellscontaintwosetsofparentalchromosomesarecalleddiploid;thosewith
cellscontainingasinglesetofparentalchromosomesarecalledhaploid.
染色体致密的超螺旋状态我们称染色体组。除了性染色体外,大多数细胞的染色体组成对出
现,称同源染色体对。非性染色体称常染色体。生物细胞含有两套父母本染色体的称二倍体;
含有单套染色体的称单倍体。
TheCellCycle
Thecellcycleisaregularsequenceinwhichthecellgrows,preparesfordivision,and
dividestoformtwodaughtercells,clingineffect
llsinmulticellularorganisms,including
animalmuscleandnervecells,eitherslowthecycleorbreakoutofitaltogether.
在细胞生长过程中,细胞循环遵循特定程序,分裂准备,分裂成2个子细胞,子细胞
再循环。此循环使得单细胞永生。多细胞生物中的许多细胞,包括动物肌肉和神经细胞,
要么降低循环速度,要么同时分裂。
stthreeincludeG
1
,theperiodof
normalmetabolism;Sphase,duringwhichnormalsynthesisofbiologicalmoleculescontinues,
DNAisreplicated,andhistonesaresynthesized;andG
2
,abriefperiodofmetabolismand
ertheG
1
,S,andG
2
rthphase
ofthecellcycleisMphase,theperiodofmitosis,duringwhichthereplicatedchromosomes
lievedthatpropertiesofthecellcytoplasm
controlthecellcycle,alongwithexternalstimulatorsandinhibitorssuchaschalones.
正常细胞循环由4个时期组成。头三期包括G
1
,正常新陈代谢;S期,正常新陈代谢同时,DNA
复制,组蛋白合成;G
2
期,短期的新陈代谢和少许生长。G
1
,S,和G
2
称分裂间期。最后
是M期,有丝分裂期,复制的染色体组浓缩,移动并细胞分裂。据称是染色质控制了细胞
循环,伴随外部激活因子和抑制因子如抑素。
Mitosis:PartitioningtheHereditaryMaterial
生物工程专业英语
19
eginningofprophase前期
thechromosomeseachconsistoftwohighlycondensedchromatidsattachedtoeachotherata
haseendsandmetaphase中期begins,thecondensed浓缩的
chromosomesbecomeassociatedwiththespindle纺锤体.Eventuallythechromosomes
becomearrangedinaplane(calledthemetaphaseplate)atarightangletothespindlefibers.
Next,duringanaphase后期,thetwosisterchromatidsofeachchromosomesplit,andone
telophase末期nuclear
envelopes包膜begintoformaroundeachsetofchromosomes,anddivisionofthecytoplasm
takesplace.
生物学家将有丝分裂划分为4个阶段。分裂前期,高度浓缩的两个染色单体通过着丝
粒连接在一起。在分裂前期后期和分裂中期前期,浓缩的染色体与纺锤体相连,最后以正
确的角度排列在赤道板上。在分裂后期,两个姊妹单体分离,分别拽向细胞两极。在分裂
末期,在每套染色体周围形成核膜,细胞质发生分裂。
Asmitosisproceeds,thespindlemicrotubulesplayacrucialroleinensuringthatboth
pairedandseparatedchromatids染色单体moveintherightdirectionsatthepropertimes.
Eachhalfofthespindleformsasmicrotubulesextendfromeachpoleofadividingcelltothe
prophase,othermicrotubules,thecentromeric着丝粒
fibers,extendoutwardfromthespindlepolestostructuresonthechromosomescalled
kinetochores着丝粒.Duringanaphasethefibersbegintoshorten,andthechromatidsbegin
tomoveapart.
在有丝分裂过程中,是纺锤体微管确保了染色单体在适当时间以正确方向进行分离。
纺锤体微管由两极向赤道板延伸。在分裂前期,其它微管,着丝粒纤维延伸到染色体的
动粒。在分裂后期,纤维开始变短,染色单体分离。
生物工程专业英语
20
alsitisassociatedwith
centriole中心粒,whileinplantandfungal真菌cellsspindleformationisassociatedwith
regionscalledmicrotubuleorganizingcenters.
植物和动物细胞形成的纺锤体不同。动物细胞与中心粒相连,而在植物和真菌细胞中,纺
锤体与微管组织中心的离子相连。
Cytokinesis:PartitioningtheCytoplasm
胞质分裂:细胞质分离
Thedivisionofthecellcytoplasmattheendofmitosisiscalledcytokinesis细胞浆移动.
Inanimalcellsittakesplaceasaringofactinfilamentscontracts使缩短合同契约aroundthe
cellequator赤道,pinching收聚tcells,whicharebounded有限制的
byacellwall,cytokinesisinvolvesthebuildingofanewcellplateacrossthedividingcellatits
llmaterialisthendeposited存放堆积intheregionofthecellplate.
在动物细胞中,环形肌动蛋白丝延赤道板收缩而使细胞一分为二。在植物细胞中,在
赤道板形成新的细胞板。
Meiosis:TheBasisofSexualReproduction
Meiosis减数isaspecialformofcelldivisionthattakesplaceinthereproductive生殖
tosis,ittakesplaceafterDNAreplicationhasoccurred
andinvolvestwosequential连续的nucleardivisions(meiosisIandmeiosisⅡ).These
divisionsresultinfourdaughtercells,eachwithhalfthenumberofchromosomesoftheparent
nomenonofcrossingoverduringmeiosisresultsinexchangesofgenetic
因此,thehomologous同源的chromosomes
distributed分布todifferentprogeny后裔cellsarenotidentical同样的.
减数分裂是性细胞分裂的特殊形式。如有丝分裂,它也是发生在DNA复制后并有连续
的两个核分裂。产生4个子细胞,分别含有亲本一半的染色体数。
生物工程专业英语
21
Asinmitosistwochromatidsexistforeachchromosomeatthebeginningofprophase1.
Duringthisphasethehomologous同源chromosomesundergo经历sy-napsis联会,or
pairing,whichisbroughtaboutbyabridgingstructureofproteinsandRNAcalledthe
synaptonemal联会丝的ologouspairsstaytogetherwhentheyalign排列
onthemetaphase中theanaphaseofmitosis,however,duringanaphaseIthe
twochromatidsofeachchromosomestayjoinedatthecentromere着丝点andmovetogether
iseventthatresultsinthehalving减半的ofthe
chromosomenumberinthefourdaughtercellsthatresultfrommeiosis.
正如在有丝分裂中一样,两个同源染色单体通过蛋白质和RNA桥配对形成联会复合体。
与有丝分裂不同的是,每组染色体的两个染色单体连接在着丝点上并一起移向细胞两极的
一级。由此而导致4个子细胞染色体数减半。
Duringtelophase末期Inuclearenvelopesenclosethechromosomesinnuclei,andinmost
speciescytokinesis细胞浆流动(thefirstnucleardivision)ondnuclear
divisionbeginswithmetaphaseⅡ,inwhichthechromosomesineachdaughtercellagainalign
排列tromeres着丝粒finallydivide,andeachsisterchromatid
tphaseistelophase,followedagainby
ultoftheentireprocessisfourhaploidcellsinwhichparental
chromosomesarerandomlydistributed.
第二次核分裂开始于分裂中期,子细胞中染色体重新排列在赤道板上。着丝粒最终分离,
每个姊妹染色单体分向两极。接着胞质分裂。产生4个单倍体,父母染色体随机分配。
AsexualVersusSexualReproduction
Mitosisandmeiosis,respectively分别,makesimplecel夏天诗词100首 ldivisionandsexualreproduction
ansofpassingonhereditary遗传ual
无性的reproductiontheparentorganism生物体givesrisetooffspring后代thataregenetic
antagesofthistypeofreproductionarethatitpreservesthe
生物工程专业英语
22
parent\'ssuccessfulgeneticcomplement遗传互补,requireslittleornospecializationof
reproductiveorgans,disadvantageofthe
asexualmodeisthatasinglecatastrophic灾难的eventordiseasemaydestroyanentire
benefitofsexualreproductionisthatit
providesgeneticvariabilityandareadymechanism机制fortheeliminationofdeleterious
allows\"new\"geneformstoariseandspreadthroughpopulations.
有丝分裂和减数分裂在传递遗传信息过程中各有优势。体细胞的繁殖就是父母本的克隆,其
优势是保留了父母本的成功遗传信息,不需要特殊器官,比性复制快的多。但一个简单灾难性
事件或疾病都可能摧毁一个细胞群体。性复制的优势是它提供了遗传可变性和现存排除有害突
变的机制。也可以产生新的基因并在种群中蔓延。
课后作业:第一篇阅读材料
答案:1C,2B,3D,4B,5A,6D
Glossary
mitosis有丝分裂
Processthatresultsinequaland
identicaldistributionofreplicated
chromosomesintotwonewlyformednuclei.
meiosis减数分裂
Theprocessbywhichanucleusdivides
intofourdaughternuclei,eachcontaining
halfthenumberofchromosomesofthe
pa国庆节的古诗10首 rentnucleus.
histone组蛋白
Oneofagroupofsimpleproteinsthat
haveahighcontentofthebasicamino
acidsarginineorlysineandarefound
associatedwithnucleicacidsinthe
chromatinofeukaryoticcells.
nucleosome核小体
Thebasicunitofchromatinstructurein
osomeconsistsof
eighthistonemoleculesoffourdifferent
types,togetherwithabout140basepairsof
DNAcoiledaroundit.
chromatin染色质
Thematerialofwhichthechromosomes
proteinarethe
mainconstituentsofchromatin,mostofthe
proteinbeinghistone.
karyotype核型,染色体组型,
生物工程专业英语
23
Theappearanceofthechromosome
complementofanorganismorcell.
homologouspair同源染色体对
Chromosomesthatpairduring
mologueisaduplicate
ofoneofthechromosomescontributedat
syngamybythemotherorfather.
Homologouschromosomescontainthe
samelinearsequenceofgenesandasa
consequenceeachgeneispresentin
duplicate.
diploid二倍体
Anynucleus,cell,ororganismthat
possessestwicethehaploidnumberof
chromosomes.
haploid单倍体
Anynucleus,cell,ororganismthat
possessesasinglesetofunpaired
chromosomes,
interphase(cycle)分裂间期(周期)
Inacellpreparingtoduplicate,the
interphasestagecandividedintoaperiod
ofinitialgrowth(G
1
),aperiodofDNA
synthesis(S),andasecondgrowthperiod
(G
2
).
chalone抑素
Substancesfoundinmammaliantissue
homogenatesthat,whenappliedtointact
tissuecells,inhibitmitosis,particularlyin
thepresenceofadrenalineand
corticosteroids.
prophase(分裂)前期
Firststageofmitosis,duringwhich
individualchromosomesbecomevisible.
chromatid染色单体
Areplicatedchromosomephysically
attachedtoanidenticalchromatidatthe
centromere.
centromere着丝粒
Thesmallareaofachromosomethat
doesnotstainwithbasicdyesduring
mitosisandmeiosis;atinterphaseitis
singlewhiletherestofthechromosomeis
madeupoftwochromatids.
metaphase(分裂)中期
Secondstageinmitosis,duringwhichthe
chromosomesalignattheequatorialplane.
spindle纺锤体
生物工程专业英语
24
Anarrayofmicrotubutesextending
frompoletopoleandusedinthemovement
ofchromosomes.
metaphaseplate赤道板,中期板
Thegroupingofthechromosomesina
planeattheequatorofthespindleduring
themetaphasestageofmitosis.
anaphase分裂后期
Thethirdstageofmitosis,duringwhich
thecentromeressplitandthechromosomes
movetothepoles.
telophase(分裂)末期
Laststageinmitosisduringwhich
daughternucleiareformed.
cytokinesis胞质分裂
Divisionofthecytoplasmofonecellintotwo
newcells.
cellplate细胞板
Aplantcellstructurethatbeginstoform
inthecenterofthecellandproceedstothe
cellmembrane,resultingincytokinesis.
生物工程专业英语
25
LessonFour(2学时)
FoundationsofGenetics
教学目的:使学生了解遗传学的发展历程,掌握孟德尔遗传学的建立及经典实
验。相关英语词汇以及主要用法。
教学重点:孟德尔遗传学的两个定律,及相关英语词汇的掌握
教学难点:专业英语词汇的记忆
讲授方法:以学生翻译为主,老师讲解相关专业知识辅助学生理解
授课时间:4月19日
教学内容:
EarlyTheoriesofinheritanee
EarlyideasofinheritanceincludedHippocrates\'theoryofpangenesisandAugustWeismands
nexperimentswithmice,Weismannproposedthathereditary
theseearlyviewsincorporated
theblendingtheory:theyheldthatheritabletraitsofthetwoparentsblend,sothatthedistinct
characteristicsofeacharelostinoffspring.
遗传学的早期理论包括泛生说和种质理论。基于小鼠实验,维丝曼提出遗传信息储存在
配子中并将遗传信息传递给后代。这两个早期观点合起来形成融合理论:子代拥有父母本
混合的遗传特征,而不完全象亲代。
生物工程专业英语
26
GregorMendelandtheBirthofGenetics
GregorMendel,anAugustinianmonkinthemonasteryatBrunn,Austria,isknownasthe
\"fatherofgenetics.\"Havingbeenexposedtotheoriesoftheparticulatenatureofmatterwhilea
universitystudentandhavingabackgroundinmathematics,Mendelcarriedoutaseriesof
carefullyp
revolutionaryideaswereneitherunderstoodnoraccepteduntilmanyyearsafterMendeldied.
孟德尔,众所周知的遗传学之父,是一名修道士。当他还是大学生时就提出了物质的粒
子属性。孟德尔进行了一系列周密安排的实验来证实遗传的颗粒性。直到他去世后,他的
理论才被理解和接受。
Mendel\'sClassicExperiments
Mendelstudiedgeneticsthroughplant-breedingexperimentswiththegardenpea,aplant
speciesthatisself-fertilizingandbreedstrue(eachoffspringisidenticaltotheparentinthetrait
ofinterest).Totesttheblendingtheory,hefocusedhisresearchonsevendistinctcharacters.
Eachofthesecharacters,suchasseedcolorandplantheight,presentonlytwo,clear-cut
recordedthetypeandnumberofallprogenyproducedfromeachpairof
parentpeaplants,andfollowedtheresultsofeachcrossfortwogenerations.
孟德尔通过豌豆实验研究遗传学,豌豆是自花授粉植物和纯品系。为验证融合理论,他
的研究主要集中在7个特征上。例如,种子颜色,植株高度,这些特征只有两个明确的可
能性。他记录了产生的每一个子代类型和数量,在杂交产生子2代。
Foreachofthecharactershestudied,Mendelfoundthatonetraitwasdominantwhilethe
econdfilial(F
2
)generation,theratioofdominanttorecessivewas
3:deducedthatthisresultwaspossibleonlyifeachindividualpossessesonlytwo
hereditaryunits,tsMendelhypothesizedaretodayknownas
alleles,nismthat
inheritsidenticalallelesforatraitfromeachparentissaidtobehomozygousforthattrait;if
生物工程专业英语
27
differentallelesforatraitareinherited,
organismisheterozygousforatrait,theresultingphenotypeforthattraitexpressesonlythe
,theorganism’sphenotype—itsphysicalappearanceandproperties-differs
fromitsgenotype,rial
representationofallpossiblecombinationsofageneticcrossisknownasaPunnettsquare.
对于每个特征而言,要么显形,要么隐性。在子2代中显形与隐性比为3∶1。只有在每
个个体仅拥有两个研究遗传单元,并每个单元来自一个亲代时,实验结果才成立。此遗传
单元就是今天共识的等位基因。两个一样的等位基因决定一个特征,称纯合。相反,称杂
合。当生物是杂合时,它的表型由显性基因决定。因此,生物的表型与基因型是不同的。
旁纳特方格可以陈列所有可能的遗传组合。
TheresultsofMendel\'sexperimentsondominantandrecessiveinheritancelettoMendel\'s
firstlaw:wstatesthatforagiventraitanorganisminheritsone
metesareformed
duringmeiosis,thetwoallelesbecomeseparated(halvingofchromosomenumber).Togain
evidenceforhistheoryMendelperformedtestcrosses,matingplantsofunknowngenotypeto
ioofdominant
phenotypes(ifany)intheprogenymakesclearwhethertheunknowngenotypeisheterozygous,
homozygousdominant,orhomozygousrecessive.
分离定律,生物只遗传父母本等位基因对的一个等位基因。减数分裂期形成配子时两
个等位基因分离。为验证此理论,他做了测交实验,即基因型未知的植物与纯合的隐性基
因植物杂交。子代显性表型可以明确测得杂合基因或纯合基因的基因型。
Mendel\'sIdeasandtheLawofindependentAssortment
Mendelalsoperformeddihybridcrosses,whichenabledhimtoconsiderhowtwotraitsare
rklettothelawofindependentassortment,which
statesthatthealle
生物工程专业英语
28
apparentexceptiontoMendel\'slawsisincompletedominance,aphenomenoninwhich
offspringofacrossexhibitaphenotypethatisintermediatebetweenthoseoftheparents.
However,incompletedominancereflectsthefactthatbothallelesforthetraitinquestionexert
elesthemselvesremainseparate.
双因子杂合试验,两个特征是如何相互影响遗传的。试验结果产生独自分配定律,即等
位基因独立遗传。特例是,不完全显性。子代的表型是父母本的中间类型。不完全显性说
明了两个等位基因对表型都有影响。,等位基因会继续分离。
Mendelpresentedhisideasin1866inascientificpaperpublishedbytheBrunnSocietyfor
unately,themeaningofhisresearchwasnotunderstoodbyother
kwasrediscoveredin1900byCarlCorrensandHugodeVries.
1866年,孟德尔在自然史上发表了他的科学论文,陈诉了他的观点。不幸的是,他的研
究不被当时科学家接受。在1900年,他的著作再被发现利用。
ChromosomesandMendelianGenetics
SoonafterMendel\'sworkwasrediscovered,WalterSuttonandTheodorBoveriindependently
mentstoprove
thishypothesiswerecarriedoutbyThomasHuntMorganandhisstudentsatColumbia
University,\'sstudieswerealsothe
ledtothediscoveryin1916byCalvinBridgesof
thephenomenonofnondisjunction,inwhichachromosomepairfailstosegregateduring
meiosis.
孟德尔著作被再发现不久,WalterSutton和TheodorBoveri提出,遗传单位可能定位在
染色体组上。伴性遗传又导致了不分离现象的发现,即在减数分裂中,染色体对不分离。
课后作业:第一篇阅读材料
答案:1C,2C,3A,4A,5B,6B
生物工程专业英语
29
Glossary
pangenesis泛生论,泛生说
Thetheoryofhereditypostulatingthat
germs,humours,oressencesmigratefrom
individualbodycellstothesexorgansand
contributetothegametes.
germplasmtheory种质学说
Asubstancethoughttobetransmittedin
thegametes(germcells)inanunchanged
germplasmwasbelievedtobeunaffectedby
theenvironmentandtogiverisetothebody
cells.
dominant显性
Thememberofapairofallelesthatshows
itseffectinthephenotypewhateverother
alleleispresent.
recessive隐形的
Thememberofapairofallelesthatdoes
notshowitseffectinthepresenceofany
otherallelicpartner.
allele等位基因
Alternativeformsofagenefora
,attached
生物工程专业英语
30
earlobegenesandfreeearlobegenesare
alternativeallelesforearshape).
gene基因
Aunitofhereditylocatedonachromosome
andcomposedasequenceofDNA
nucleotides.
homozygous纯合的
Adiploidorganismthathastwoidentical
allelesforparticularcharacteristic.
heterozygous杂合的
Adiploidorganismthathastwodifferent
pe
基因型
Thecatalogofgenesofanorganism,
whetherornotthesegenesareexpressed.
phenotype表型
Thephysical,chemical,andpsychological
expressionofgenespossessedbyan
organism.
Punnettsquare旁纳特方格
Amethodusedtodeterminethe
probabilitiesofcombinationinazygote.
lawofsegregation分裂定律
Whengametesareformedbyadiploid
organism,theallelesthatcontrolatrait
separatefromoneanotherintodifferent
gametes,retainingtheirindividuality.
testcross测交
Acrossbetweenaheterozygoteof
unknowngenotypeandanindividual
homozygousfortherecessivegenesin
question
.dihybridcross双因子杂种,双因子杂合子
Acrossbetweenindividualsthatdiffer
ofindependentassortment独立分配定律,
自由组合定律
Membersofonegenepairwillseparate
fromeachotherindependentlyofthe
membersofothergenepairs.
incompletedominance不完全显性
Theconditioninwhichtwoallelicgenes
haveadifferenteffectwhentheyaretogether
asaheterozygoteinadiploidcellthaneither
ofthemhaveinthehomozygousstate
nondisjunction不分离
Thefailureofseparationofpaired
chromosomesatmetaphase,resultinginone
daughterreceivingbothandtheother
daughtercellnoneofthechromosomesin
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31
Five(2学时)
DiscoveringtheChemicalNatureoftheGene
教学目的:使学生了解遗传学化学本质的发现过程,及相关假说,使学生掌握
相关专业词汇以及主要用法。
教学重点:DNA分子组成及相关英语词汇的掌握。
教学难点:专业英语词汇的记忆
讲授方法:以学生翻译为主,老师讲解相关专业知识辅助学生理解
授课时间:4月26日
教学内容:
GenesCodeforParticularProteins
ThefirstscientisttoinvestigatethequestionofhowgenesaffectphenotypewasSirArchibald
Garrod,whosestudiesofalkaptonuriaimpliedarelationshipbetweengenesandenzymes.
ThirtyyearslaterBeadleandEphrussishowedarelationshipbetweenparticulargenesand
,inaseriesofclassic
experimentsontheeffectsofmutationsinthebreadmoldNeurosporacrassa,BeadleandTatum
exploredtheone-gene-one-enzymehypothesis-theideathateachgenecodesforaparticular
orkpavedthewayforotherresearcherstoelucidatetheprecisewaysinwhich
1949,inresearchontheroleofhemoglobinin
sicklecellanemia,LinusPaulinghelpedrefinetheone-gene-one-enzymehypothesisintothe
one-gene-one-polypeptidehypothesis.
ArchibaldGarrod是第一个研究基因是如何影响表型的科学家,他对尿黑酸症的研究揭示
了基因与酶之间的关系。Beadle和Ephrussi在三十年后对果蝇眼睛颜色的研究发现特殊基
生物工程专业英语
32
因与相关反应的生物合成有关。接着对面包发霉粗糙脉孢菌的突变试验得出一个基因一个
酶的假说。他们的工作为其他工作者铺平了道路,即精确地阐明了酶影响了复杂的新陈代
谢途径。在1949年,对镰刀状细胞贫血症的研究对一个基因一个酶的假说进一步上升为一
个基因一个多肽。
TheSearchfortheChemistryandMolecularStructureofnucleicAcids
Nucleiacid,originallyisolatedbyJohannMiescherin1871,wasidentifiedasaprime
constituentofchromosomesthroughtheuseofthered-stainingmethoddevelopedbyFeulgenin
ickGriffith\'sexperimentswiththeRandSstainsofpneumococci
showedthatanasyetunknownmaterialfromonesetofbacterialcouldalterthephysicaltraits
1940stheteamofAvery,MacLeod,andMcCartyshowedthatthis
discoveredthatDNA
containedfournitrogenousbases,eachofwhichwasattachedtoasugarmoleculeanda
phosphategroup-acombinationLevenetermedanucleotide.
在1871年,核酸最初是由JohannMiescher分离成功,并由Feulgen在1900年证实核酸是染
色体组最基本的组成。FrederickGriffith对粗糙和光滑的肺炎球菌实验表明,不确定的某种
物质可以从一组细菌转移到另一种细菌中。在1940年,确认该物质为DNA。四个碱基和磷
酸分子分别连接在糖分子上,称核苷酸。
DisagreementoverwhetherDNAcouldcarrycomplexgeneticinformationwasendedinthe
early1950sbyMarthaChaseandAlfredHershey,owedclearlythat
DNA,andnotprotein,isthebearerofgeneticinformation.
直到1950年,通过对大肠杆菌实验发现,遗传物质是DNA,而不是蛋白质。
EachDNAnucleotidecontainsafive-carbonsugar,deoxyribose,attachedtooneoffour
bases:adenine,guanine,cytosine,eandguaninemoleculesare
double-ringstructurescalledpurines,whilecytosineandthyminearesingle-ringstructures
生物工程专业英语
33
eachmoleculeofDNAaphosphategrouplinksthefive-carbonsugarofonenucleosidetothe
osphatebondingcreatesa
sugar-phosphatebackbone.
每个核苷酸都含有一个五碳脱氧核糖,分别连接4个碱基,即:腺嘌呤,鸟嘌呤,胞嘧
啶,胸腺嘧啶。碱基连接糖称核苷。磷酸键形成磷酸骨架。
Chargaff’srulesdescribethefactthat(1)theamountofadenineisequaltotheamountof
thymineinDNA,withamountofcytosineequaltothatofguanine,and(2)theratiosofAtoT
andofCtoGvarywithdifferentspecies.
(1)腺嘌呤与胸腺嘧啶,胞嘧啶与鸟嘌呤相等;(2)腺嘌呤与胸腺嘧啶,胞嘧啶与鸟
嘌呤的比例随物种不同而不同。
TheResearchRacefortheMolecularStructureofDNA
Inthelate1940sandearly1950s,researcherslookingforthestructureofDNAdrewupon
Chargaffsinsight,Levene\'sideasonDNAcomponents,
wasthesuggestionofLinusPaulingthatDNAmighthaveahelicalstructureheldinplaceby
hydrogenbonds,andtheotherwasX-raydiffractionphotosofDNA,showingahelical
structurewithdistancebetweenthecoils,takenbyFranklinandWilkins.
直到40年代末50年代初,研究者在寻求DNA结构过程中,确立了Chargaff的观点和,
Levene的组成理论以及其他两个线索。一个是LinusPauling的假设,DNA可能具有螺旋结
构,通过氢键连接。另一个是X-衍射图片,FranklinandWilkins提供。
BasedonthisinformationWatsonandCrickproposedthedoublehelixmodelofDNA-A
twistedladder-likemoleculewithtwooutersugarphosphatechainsandrungsformedby
nucleotides,whichalwaysoccurasA-TorG-C,arelinkedby
andCrickalsoproposedthatgeneticinformationisencodedbythe
sequenceofbasepairsalongtheDNAmolecule.
生物工程专业英语
34
基于这些信息,Watson和Crick提出了双螺旋结构模型,成对的核苷酸通过氢键相连,
遗传信息就贮藏在碱基对中。
HowDNAReplicates
IntheirmodelofDNAstructureandfunction,WatsonandCrickhypothesizedthatDNA
replicatesitselfby\"unzipping\"
processwouldproducetwooppositehalvesthatcouldthenserveastemplatesforthe
constructionofnew,delofsemiconservativereplication
conservativebecauseeachnewmoleculehasonehalfoftheformerparentmolecule-waslater
confirmedbytheworkof
DNA进行复制是以拉链方式自我复制,产生的两个二分体分别为模板生成互补链,即半
保留复制。并由Meselson和Stahl验证。
Areplicationbeginswiththeformationofabubblelikestructureonthecircular
sofbacterialDNAreplicationhave
shownthatagrowingDNAchainlengthensonlyinthe5\'to3\'direction(fromthe5\'carbonof
onesugartothe3\'carbonofthenext).Theleadingstrandissynthesizedcontinuously,while
thelayme
DNApolymeraselinksfreenucleotidesastheylineuponthetemplateformedbytheoriginal
strandoftheparentmolecule.
生物工程专业英语
35
Ineukary
longDNAmoleculesreplicationproceeds(intwodirectionsatonce)fromhundredsor
thousandsofpointsoforigin.
大肠杆菌复制开始时形成泡样复制叉,链生长方向由5′向3′端,前导链连续生成,后
随链由冈崎片段组成,由DNA聚合酶催化。真核生物复制与原核生物复制相似,但有几百
到几千个复制原点(原核一般只有一个复制原点)。
课后作业:第一篇阅读材料
答案:1C,2C,3B,4A,5D,6D,7B
Glossary
one-gene-one-enzymehypothesis一基因一
酶假说
Thehypothesisthatalargeclassofgeneexist
inwhicheachgenecontrolsthesynthesisor
enzymesandotherproteinswhosesyntheses
arecontrolledbymorethanonegenearenow
known,thishypothesishasbeenreplacedby
theone-gene-onepolypeptidehypothesis.
生物工程专业英语
36
one-gene-one-polypeptidehypothesis一基
因一多肽假说
Thehypothesisthatalargeclassofgenes
existinwhicheachgenecontrolsthe
polypeptidemayfunctionindependentlyoras
asubunitofamorecomplexprotein.
adenine腺嘌呤
Apurinebasethatisanessentialconstituent
ofthenucleicacidsandalsoofsuch
coenzymesasNADandFAD.
guanine鸟嘌呤
Adouble-ringnitrogenousbasemoleculein
ecomplementary
baseofcytosine.
cytosine胞嘧啶
Asingle-ringnitrogenousbasemoleculein
mplementaryto
guanine.
thymine胸腺嘧啶
Asingle-ringnitrogenousbasemoleculeof
mplementaryto
adenine.
purine嘌呤
Oneofagroupofnitrogenousbaseswhose
parentcompoundhastheformulashown.
Thetwomostabundantpurinesareadenine
andguanine,whichareconstituentsof
nucleicacidsandcoenzymes.
pyrimidine嘧啶
Aheterocyclicorganiccompound,C
4
N
4
N
2
thefundamentalformofpyrimidinebases.
Someofthesebasesareconstituentsof
nucleicacid.
nucleoside核苷
Apurineorpyrimidinebaseattachedto
leosides
commonlyfoundinDNAandRNAare:
cytidine,cytosinedeoxyriboside,thymidine,
uridine,adenosine,adeninedeoxyriboside,
guanosine,andguaninedeoxyriboside.
Notethatthymidineisadeoxyribosideand
cytidine,uridine,adenosine,andguanosine
areribosides.
X-raydiffractionX射线衍射
Atechniquefordeterminingthearrangement
ofatomsinacrystallinesubstanceby
analysingthediffractionpatternsproduced
whenanarrowbeamofX-raysispassed
生物工程专业英语
37
throughthesubstance.X-raydiffractionhas
contributedtotheelucidationofstructureof
manybiologicalmolecules,includingsome
,DNA,
haemoglobin,myoglobin.
DNAdoublehelix双螺旋
Thethree-dimensionalstructureof
doublestrandedDNA.
semiconservativereplication半保留复制
ThemethodofreplicationofDNAinwhich
themoleculedivideslongitudinally,eachhalf
beingconservedandactingasatemplatefor
theformationofanewstrand.
replicationfork复制叉
ApointatwhichthetwostrandsofaDNA
doublehelixareunwoundandseparated
duringreplication.
Okazakifragment冈琦片断
AshortsequenceofDNAthatistheprimary
productofDNApolymeraseduringDNA
replication.
polymeraseDNA聚合酶
AnenzymethatbringsnewDNA
triphosphatenucleotidesintopositionfor
bondingonanotherDNAmolecule.
LessonSix(2学时)
TheOriginandDiversityofLife
教学目的:使学生了解生命的起源和多样性及相关假说,使学生掌握相关专业
词汇以及主要用法。
教学重点:生物分类的组成及相关英语词汇的掌握。
教学难点:专业英语词汇的记忆
讲授方法:以学生翻译为主,老师讲解相关专业知识辅助学生理解
授课时间:5月10日
教学内容:
AHomeforLife:FormationoftheSolarSystemandPlanetEarth
生物工程专业英语
38
Thestoryoflife\'uenceofevents
thatgaverisetoourplanetbegan,inturn,withthecosmicexplosionphysicistscalltheBig
atthecenterofoursolarsystemcondensedfromacloudofprimordialmatter
roughly5billionyearsago;theplanets,includingtheearth,condensedabout4.6billionyears
thiscomposedofanumberoflayers:asolidcrust,asemisolidmantle,anda
largelymolten(liquid)hysicalfeaturesofEarththatmay
havemadetheemergenceoflifepossibleincludetheplanet\'ssize,temperature,composition,
orcurrenthypothesisholdsthatlifearosespontaneously
ontheearlyearthbymeansofchemicalevolutionfromnonlivingsubstances.
生命起源于地球的形成。大爆炸是我们行星形成的开始。太阳在50亿年前生成,位于
太阳系中心,行星,包括地球,在46亿年前生成。地球由多层组成:坚硬的地壳,半流体
的地幔,一个很大的溶解中心中存在一个坚实的中心。地球的基本特征使生命起源成为可
能,包括行星的大小,温度,组成以及离太阳的距离。当前主要假设认为,由非生命的化
学物质进化过程自发产生了生命。
TheEmergenceoflife:OrganicandBiologicalMoleculesonaPrimitivePlanet
Evidenceforprelifestagesofchemicalorganizationcomesfromlaboratoryexperimentsthat
trytodup
experiments,includingthepioneeringworkofMillerandUrey,havesuccessfullyproduced
organicmonomersincludingaminoacids,simplesugars,
probablenextsteptowardlifewasthespontaneouslinkingofsuchmonomersintopolymers
tresearchsuggeststhatlikelysitesforthis
polymerizationwereclayorrocksurfaces.
通过创造出地球早期的自然条件和化学资源条件,科学家在实验室中已经获得了化学
有机体生命前阶段的证据。这些实验包括米勒等早期所做工作,成功地产出了有机单体,
生物工程专业英语
39
包括氨基酸,单糖,核酸碱基。这些单体自发的连接成多聚体,如类蛋白和核酸,使进
入生命状态成为可能。这些聚合作用可能发生在泥土或岩石表面。
Researchershavefoundthat,whenenergyisavailabletoasystem,theycangeneratethree
sianAleksandrOparinobtainedpolymer-rich
droplets,Foxgeneratedproteinoid
laboratorystructureisthe
liposome,turesimilartoone
ormoreoftheseaggregatesmayhavebeentheprecursoroftruecells.
当一个系统获得能量时,可能发生3种有机分子的聚集。从多聚物的溶液中俄国科学家
获得了富含小液滴的多聚物,即凝聚物。从氨基酸和水的混合液中Fox获得了类蛋白微球
体。实验室第三个结构物质是脂质体,即由磷脂形成的球形脂双层结构。
FurtherstepsintheappearanceofcellsontheearthincludedthedevelopmentofRNAand
cesuggeststhatRNA,whichcanform
spontaneouslyunderconditionsmimickingthoseoftheearlyearth,wasthefirstinformational
coveryofRNAribozymes-RNAthatcanactasanenzymelikecatalyst
suggeststhatsuchcatalyticRNAalsocouldhaveassemblednewRNAsfromearly
ncatalyticRNAscanalsocarryoutsexlikeexchangesofpiecesofRNA.
RNA可能是地球早期形成的第一个贮藏信息的物质。在实验室模拟早期地球自然条件
下其可自发形成。核酶的发现说明它可以催化早期核酸形成新的RNA。对于RNA物种而
言,某些催化RNA具备类似于性交换的功能。
Followingthedevelopmentofalipid-proteinsurfacelayerandreplicatingRNAandDNA
informationalmolecules,theeventsleadingtotheemergenceoflivingcellswouldhave
includedtheoriginofthegeneticcode;thesequesteringofRNAorDNAintocell-like
structures;andthedevelopmentofmetabolicpathways.
生物工程专业英语
40
接下来脂蛋白表层的形成,RNA的复制,DNA信息分子的形成,最终导致活细胞的出现,
包括最初的遗传密码,RNA或DNA被包裹进细胞样的结构中;及代谢途径的建立。
TheEarliestCells
Theoldestfossilsthatmayrepresentlivingcellsarefoundinrocksthatareabout3.5billion
lswereprobablyanaerobicheterotrophs,withautotrophsarisingmuchlater.
ThefirstautotrophsproducedtheirownnutrientsandreleasedO,-ametabolicby-productthat
ultingozonelayerintheearth\'satmosphere
ult,cellswouldsurviveinshallowwater
reasingquantityofatmosphericoxygenalsopermittedthe
evolutionofaerobiccellsandcellularrespiration,whichinturnsignaledthebeginningofthe
ghtheearliestcellswereallprokaryotes,byabout1.5billionyears
agoeukaryotesappeared.
能说明活细胞存在的最古老化石大约有35亿年了。最早出现的细胞可能是厌氧异氧生
物,自养生物很久后出现。最早的自养生物自己生产营养并释放氧气,这个新陈代谢副产
品对后期生命的形成有一个深远的影响。臭氧层的出现减少了紫外线的渗透。结果,细胞
就能够在浅水区和陆地上生存了。大气中氧气数量的增加使得需氧细胞进化并产生细胞呼
吸,这预示着全球碳循环的开始。最早期的细胞都是原核生物,直到15亿年后,真核细胞
才出现。
TheChan重阳节是干什么的? gingFaceofplanetEarth
Changesinlandmasses,theseas,andclimatehavegreatlyaffectedtheevolutionoflifeonthe
icpartsoftheplanetincludealight,solidcrustoverahot,semisolidmantleand
aninner,esegmentsorplatesofthecrustmoveoverthemantle
epast500millionyears,continentaldrifthas
sculptedtheearth\'scruststoproducetheformanddistributionofpresent-daycontinents.
Climaticchangesthatgreatlyaffectedlivingorganismsaccompaniedtheseplatemovements;the
生物工程专业英语
41
persms
werealsoaffectedbyperiodsofglaciationthatfollowedvariationsintheearth\'sorbitandinthe
outputofenergybythesun.
大陆板快,海洋的改变,以及气候对地球生命的进化都有深远影响。地幔上大板快地壳
的挤压形成大陆漂移。大陆漂移雕塑了地壳的外观,使现在大陆形成。伴随板块运动,气
候改变对活有机体有深远影响。在特定时期的生物大量灭亡高峰是这个时期的见证。生物
也受冰河期影响,在冰河期,地球轨道和太阳能的输出都发生了很大变化。
Taxonomy:CategorizingtheVarietyoflivingThings
BiologistsusethebinomialsystemofnomenclaturedevelopedbyLinnaeustocategorize
temassignseachtypeoforganismtoagenusand
smsarethenfurtherclassifiedintohighertaxonomiccategories-family,order,
class,division(plants),phylum(animals),cefrommanysubfieldsof
biology,suchasbiochemistryandcomparativeanatomy,helpsdefinespeciesandhighertaxa
(taxon).Andwhereasspecieswereoriginallydefinedintermsofmorphologicaltraits,today
biologistsgenerallyusethecriterionofareproductivelyisolatedpopulation.
生物学家利用林奈发展的双名法对生物分类。系统选定每个类型的生物进入属和种,然
后将生物进一步分类更高级类别中,即科,目,纲,门,界。来自于生物化学和比较解剖
学等亚生物学领域的证据有助于划分物种和更高级的分类单位,然而物种最初依据形态学
特征进行分类的,今天生物学家大体上使用孤立多产的群体作为标准。
Taxonomyrevealsagreatdealabouttheevolutionaryrelationshipsamongorganisms.A
cladeisataxonomicunitwhosemembersarederivedfromacommonancestor.
分类学揭示了物种间进化的大量关系。进化枝中的成员来自一个共同的祖先。
TheFiveKingdoms
Aphylxtuses
acommonfive-kingdomarrangement:organismsaregroupedintothekingdomsMonera,
生物工程专业英语
42
Protista,Fungi,Plantae,ghthissystemisaconvenientorganizational
tool,thekingdomsareprobablynotrueclades.
进化系统树是进化关系的图解表现。教材中使用一个通用的5界:?,?,真菌,植物,
动物。尽管这个系统是一个便利的组织工具,5界划分可能不是正确的进化枝。
课后作业:第一篇阅读材料
答案:1B,2A,3B,4C,5A,6C
Glossary
BigBang大爆炸
Anexplosionproducingapressureoscillation
oftheorderofamillibarormoreatadistant
uclearfusion
explosionsarecomparable.
crust地壳
ThecrustoftheEarthistheoutershellofthe
Earth,definedbyitscompositionandthe
propertiesofsomeseismicwaves.
mantle地幔
ThepartoftheinterioroftheEarthbetween
thecrustandthecore.
core核心
ThecoreoftheEarthisthatpartlyingbelow
themantle.
coacervate团聚体,凝聚层
Acollectionoforganicmacromolecules
surroundedbywatermoleculesthatare
alignedtofon-nasphere.
liposome脂质体
Avesicleformedbythehomogenization
(emulsification)ofphospholipidsindilute
mesaretheprototypes
ofmembrane-boundbiologicstructures.
ozonelayer臭氧层
Alayeroftheatmosphere,about20to50km
abovethesurface,whichcontainsozone
producedbyultravioletradiation.
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43
proteinoid类蛋白[质]
Aproteinlikestructureofbranchedamino
acidchainsthatisthebasicstructureofa
microsphere.
continentaldrift大陆漂移
Thetheorythatthepresentcontinentsresult
fromthebreak-upofalargercontinentand
havemovedindependentlytotheirpresent
positions.
binomialsystemofnomenclature双名法
UsestwoLatinnames,genusandspecies,for
eachtypeoforganism.
genus属
(plural,genera)Aunitusedinthe
classificationofplantsandanimals.A
genusconsistsofanumberofcloselyrelated
species,andmembersofthesamegenus
oftenhaveanumberofobvious
characteristicsincommonbywhichtheycan
clearlybeseentoberelated.
species物种
Aunitusedintheclassificationofplantsand
yaspeciesisdefinedasa
groupoforganismsthatinterbreedwitheach
othertoproducefertileoffspring.
family科
Aunitusedintheclassificationofplantsand
yconsistsofanumberof
closelyrelatedorsimilargeneraor
namesendin-aceaeor-aeinbotanyandin
-ideaeinzoology.
order目
Aunitusedintheclassificationofplantsand
rconsistsofanumberof
similarorcloselyrelatedfamiliesoronlyon
fordersendtypicallyin
-alesinplantsandin-ainanimals.
class纲
Agroupusedintheclassificationofliving
consistsofanumberof
similarorcloselyrelatedordersoroccasionally
sareusuallylarge
andeasilyrecognizedgroups.
division门
Auniteusedintheclassificationofplants.
Adivisionconsistsofanumberofclasses,or
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44
occasionallyofonlyonclass,withcertain
importantcharacteristicsincommon.
phylum门(复数phyla)
Aunitusedintheclassificationofanimals.
Aphylumconsistsofanumberofclasses,or
occasionallyofonlyoneclass,withcertain
importantcharacteristicsincommon,
implyingthatallmembersaredescended
fromacommonancestor.
kingdom界
Inbiology,amajorcategoryintowhich
livingmaterialisclassified.
taxon分类单位,分类群(复数taxa)
Aunitofclassificationofanyrankinthe
hierarchicalscale.
taxonomy分类学
Thestudyofthetheory,procedure,andrules
ofclassificationoforganismsaccordingto
theSimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenthem
clade进化枝,分化单位
Inacladisticclassification,organismsare
placedintotaxonomicgroupscalledclades
whentheysharecharacteristicsthatare
thoughttoindicatecommonancestry.
LessonSeven(2学时)
Fungi:TheGreatDecomposers
教学目的:使学生了解真菌的分类,典型真菌的结构特点,使学生掌握相关专
业词汇以及主要用法。
教学重点:真菌分类的组成及相关英语词汇的掌握。
教学难点:专业英语词汇的记忆
讲授方法:以学生翻译为主,老师讲解相关专业知识辅助学生理解
授课时间:5月17日
教学内容:
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45
CharacteristicsofFungi
Theapproximately175,000speciesoffungiincludesomeofthesimplestmulticellular
ybesaprobesthatdecomposedead
organicmatter;theymaybeparasiteswhichobtainnutrientsfromlivinghosts;ortheymaylive
eofthese
variations,however,allfungicarryoutextracellulardigestion:theysecreteenzymesthat
digestorganicmatter,andthentheyabsorbtheresultingnutrients.
包括最简单的多细胞生物在内,真菌大概有175,000种。真菌有多种生命形式。他们可
能是分解无生命的腐生菌;也可能是寄生菌;或者与藻类共生,或者与高等植物共生。不
管如何变化,所有真菌都是细胞外消化。他们分泌酶消化有机物,然后吸收有效的营养物
质。
Mostfungihavethesamebasicbodystructureconsistingofamainbodyorthalluscomposed
incertainspeciesmaybecomespecializedtoformrhizoids,whichserveasrootlikeanchors,or
y,hyphaemayormaynot
beseptate-havingcrosswallsthatsegregateindependentcells,eachwithatleastonenucleus.
Lowerfungiarecoenocytic;thatis,theyareonemassofcytoplasmthatcontainsmultiple
nuclei.
大多数真菌有同样的基本结构,即由菌丝组成的菌体。大多数真菌的细胞壁含有明角质。
某些种类的菌丝可能特化形成假根,具有根样的固定作用,或者他们成为饲喂结构称吸器。
菌丝或有细胞隔膜或没有细胞隔膜,但至少有一个细胞核。低级真菌是多核体的,即,一
大团细胞质含有多个细胞核。
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46
digestedandabsorbedatthetipofeachhyphae;morehyphaearegeneratedasthisprocess
ult,dependsonmitosisandthe
rapidmanufactureofcytoplasm;fungalmitosisisuniqueinthatitoccurswithinthenucleus.
Hyphaefromgeneticallydistinctindividualsmayfusetoformaheterokaryon-asingle
cytoplasmwithdissimilarnuclei.
菌丝生长形成分支,进而形成网状结构称为菌丝体。在菌丝尖端,食物被消化并吸收;
这个过程能持续产生更多菌丝。结果,真菌生长很快。生长靠有丝分裂和细胞质的快速产
生。真菌的有丝分裂很独特,即它只发生在细胞核里。遗传学明显不同的菌丝个体融合形
成异核体——同一个细胞质中含有不同的细胞核。
Asnonmotileheterotrophs,fungimusteventuallybeabletofindnewsourcesofnutrients.
Thisfunctionisfulfilledbyspores,maybehomeon
aerialhyphae,whichdischargesporesintotheair,anddependingonthespeciestheymay
retwomaincategoriesofspores:(1)dispersalspores,whichare
usuallyshort-livedandareproducedinlargenumbersduringactivefungalgrowth;and(2)
survivalspores,whichareusuallyproducedinsmallernumbersandatatimeinthelifecycle
whenthefungusisundersomekindofenvironmentalstress.
作为不会移动的异养生物,真菌最终能够发现营养新资源的。这个过程由孢子来完成,
即真菌的生殖体。孢子可能是在气生菌丝的中心,将孢子释放到空气中,依赖物种不同,
可能是单倍体也可能是二倍体。有两种主要的孢子:(1)分散的孢子,通常生命期短,
数量大,主要存在于活跃的菌丝生长阶段;(2)存活孢子,通常产生很少的数量,在生
存压力条件下的一种生命循环。
Classificationoffungi
Aswithsomeoftheothergroupsyouhavestudied,itisdifficulttogroupfungiaccordingto
ral,theyareclassifiedaccordingtomorphology,
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47
methodsofreproduction,asisofthesefeatures,the
singledivisionofthekingdomFungi,Mycota,isdividedintosixprincipalclasses.
对真菌依据实际进化关系进行分类是很困难的。总体来说,它们是依据形态学,生殖方
式,孢子产生的模式来分类。基于这些特性真菌界的门被分成6个基本纲。
ThelowerfungicomprisethegroupsChytridiomycetes,Oomycetes,
lackseptatehyphaeandarecommonlycoenocytic;
thesixfungalclasses,tes
andchytrids(sometimescalledwatermolds)producemotile,flagellatedsporesinsporangia.
Theyalsoproducegametesingametangia;oomycetesaredistinguishedbytheirlarge,
,boththesegroupshavesuchdistinctivefeaturesthatsome
cetesresembletheother
ealsocompletelyterrestrial,and
someformmycorrhizalassociationswithplantroots.
低级真菌包含壶菌,卵菌纲和接合菌。所有缺乏隔膜的菌丝是通用的多核细胞的;孢子
通过非性方式产生。只有卵菌纲通常有二倍体的营养状态。卵菌纲和壶菌在孢子囊中产生
能动的带鞭毛的孢子。在配子囊中产生配子;卵菌纲具有非寻常大的静止的卵细胞。实际
上,这两大群具有不同的特征,生物学家宁愿把它们归为原生动物而不是真菌。接合菌与
其它两纲相似,但它的孢子不会动。它们完全是陆生的,一些菌根与某些植物的根形成共
生关系。
ThehigherfungiincludetheclassAscomycetes,
lreproductionproducessporescalled
conidia,scomycetesexual
cycle,hyphaeofdifferentmatingstrainsfuse,givingrisetoascosporesthatforminasmall,
cetesofinteresttohumans
includetruffles,yeasts,andPenicilliumspecies.
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48
高级真菌包括子囊菌纲,最大的真菌纲。大多数子囊菌要么是腐生菌,要么是寄生菌。
非性繁殖产生的孢子称分生孢子子实体,其依赖特化的气生菌丝尖。在子囊菌性循环过程
中,不同的菌丝通过株融合进行匹配,产生的子囊菌存在于小类子囊中。子囊群形成果实
体。对人类有利的子囊菌包括块菌,酵母和产青霉素菌。
MostmembersoftheclassBasidiomycetes—thesecondgroupofhigherfungiformvisible
characteristicdistinguishingbasidiomycetesfromascomycetesisthe
densemassofdikaryotichyphaecalledthebasidiocarp-the\"mushroom\"seenondamplawns
-shapedbasidia,eachbearingfourhaploidbasidiospores,linethe
softhisgroupundergo
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49
bothsexualandasexualreproductiveprocessesatdifferenttimesintheirlifecycle,andin
responsetovaryingenvironmentalinfluences.
纲中大多数菌为担子菌,第二大类高级真菌,能形成可见的果实体。担子菌与子囊菌相
比,最基本不同是它具备浓密的双核菌丝,称担子果。棒形担子,每个都含有4个单倍体
的担子孢子,线形地排列在蘑菇帽下的菌褶表面。大多数成员有性和非性繁殖两种,在不
同生命循环中有不同形式,并依据环境变化而变化。
TheclassDeuteromycetes,orFungiImperfecti,includesavarietyoffungithatlackmodes
eknowntoreproduceasexuallybymeansofconidia.
Deuteromycetesimportanttohumansincludethoseusedtofermentsoybeansandricetomake
soysauceandsakerespectively,andthoseresponsibleforproducingcitricacidandthehighly
dangerousaflatoxin.
半知菌纲,包括大量无性繁殖的真菌。分生孢子完成非性繁殖。对人类很重要的半知菌
纲包括发酵大豆成酱油和大米发酵成清酒的菌类,它们也产生柠檬酸和有毒的黄曲霉毒
素。
Lichens:TheUltimateSymbionts
Lichensarecompositeorganismsinwhichabout90percentofthelichenmassconsistsofone
speciesoffungus,whiletheremaining10percentismadeupofoneortwospeciesofalgae.
Thealgalportionofthelichenprovidesthefungalportionwithessentialnutrients,whilethe
presenceofthefungalcomponentmayenablethealgatoexploitanotherwiseunavailable
fungiareusuallyascomycetes,althoughtheothertwohigherfungi
shaveanumberofremarkablefeatures,includingtheir
abilitytobecomealmostcompletelydesiccatedwithoutdryingandtheirabilitytoabsorb
uctioninlichensisnotwellunderstood.
地衣是复合生物,大概90%的地衣团由一种地衣组成,10%含有一两种藻类。藻类为真
菌提供必要的营养,真菌为藻类提供了难得的小生态环境。地衣真菌通常是子囊菌,有时
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50
在地衣中也能发现其他两类真菌。地衣有大量的显著特征,包括在几乎脱水条件下仍能吸
收无机养分。地衣繁殖方式还不清楚。
FungalEvolution
Thevariousfungimayhavearisenindependentlyfromprokaryotes,sincesomeevidence
suggeststhatascomycetesandbasidiomycetedidnotevolvefromknownlowerforms.
However,allfungidoshowthesamedependenceonnutrientsproducedbyplants,animals,or
algae.
各种真菌可能都独立进化于原核生物,有证据表明,子囊菌和担子菌没有进化。但所有
真菌都依赖由植物,动物或藻类产生的营养。
课后作业:阅读材料一
答案:1B,2B,3A
Glossary
saprobe腐生菌
Anorganismthatlackstheabilityof
photosynthesis,andlivesondeadordecaying
organicmatter,asaprophyte.
hyphae菌丝(复数hypha)
Fungalfilamentsthatdevelopfromthe
ethe
fundamentalelementsofamycelium.
rhizoid假根
Oneofmanyuni-andmulticellular
filamentousoutgrowthsthatareproducedby
somealgaeandbythegametophytesof
bryophytesandpteridophytesandfunctionas
roots.
haustorium吸器(复数haustoria)
Aspecializedstructureofsomeparastic
,dodder,mistletoeetc.)which
penetratesintothevascularbundlesofthe
hostplanttoobtainnourishment.
mycelium菌丝体(复数mycelia)
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51
Thetangledmassofhyphaethatformsthe
vegetativebody(sometimesterinedathallus)
ofafungus.
heterokaryon异核体
Insomaticcellgenetics,thestatewhentwo
cellshaveftisedbuttheirnucleihavenotyet
fusedseptate有隔膜的,分隔的
Dividedbyaseptum.
sporangium孢子果,孢子囊(复数
sporangia)Acellwithinwhichsporesor
lly,itis
anasexualstructureofcertainfungi
gametangium配子囊(复数gametangia)
Agamete-producingstructureorsexorganin
plants,eridium,oogonium,or
archegonium..
ascomycetes子囊菌
Afemalereproductivestructureofsome
ascomycetesinwhichplasmogamyoccurs
priortoascusformation.
conidium分生孢子子实体(复数conidia)
Anasexualsporeofcertainfungithatis
abstractedfromthetiporthesideofspecial
amay
consistofonecellorofseveralcells;inthe
lattercasetheseptamaybelongitudinal,
transverse,ormixed.
ascus子囊(复数asci))
Thecharacteristicstructureproducingsexual
sporesintheAscomycetes.
basidiomycetes担子菌纲
Agroupofmycelialfungi(Eumycophyta)
whosesexualreproductionresultsinthe
formationofbasidia,which(exceptinthe
rustsandsmuts)arehomeonbasidiocarps.
basidiocarp担子果
Afruitingbodyofthehigherbasidiomycete
ocarpsarethemostobvious
manifestationsofthesefungiandinclude
mushrooms,toadstools,andsimilarbodies.
basidium担子(复数basidia)
Thecharacteristicstructureproducingsexual
sporesintheBasidiomycetes.
FungiImperfecti(Deuteromycetes)
半知菌属,半知菌亚门
Agroupoffungiwithseptatemyceliain
whichsexualreproductioniseitherlackingor
thesefungiareof
greatimportanceastheycausediseasesin
plants,animals,andman.
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52
lichen地衣
Thallophyteplantscomposedofafungusand
analgainsuchclosesymbiosisthatthey
formavegetativeplantbodythatis
morphologicallydifferentfromeitherofthe
constituents.
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53
LessonEight
AnimalDevelopment
教学目的:使学生了解动物的生育过程,胚胎发育的结构特点,使学生掌握相
关专业词汇以及主要用法。
教学重点:动物发育过程及相关英语词汇的掌握。
教学难点:专业英语词汇的记忆
讲授方法:以学生翻译为主,老师讲解相关专业知识辅助学生理解
授课时间:5月24日
教学内容:
ProductionofSpermandEggs
Insexuallyreproducingorganismsmalesandfemalesproducesexcells,knownasgametes.
Theseareswimmingsperminmalesandova(eggs)infemales.
在性繁殖过程中,生物的雄性和雌性产生性细胞,称配子。雄性是能够游动的精子,雌
性是卵子。
Theprocessofspermproduction,spermatogenesis,rm
originateingonialcells(spermatogonia)tocytes
producedbymit
maturespermhasatail,anucleuscontaininghaploidchromosomes,andafrontendwithan
acrosome,thestoragesiteforenzymesthatwillaidfertilization.
精子产生过程,即精子发生在睾丸中。精子产生于输精管壁的性母细胞(精原细胞)。
精原细胞经有丝分裂再减数分裂产生单倍体精子细胞,即精母细胞。成熟精子有尾部,单
倍体染色体组,头部有顶体,内部储存酶类,有助于受精。
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54
Ova,whichareproducedduringoogenesis,aregeneratedingonialcells(oogonia)ofthe
female\'cies-specific
laterpoint,afinalripening(ovulation)dmeiotic
division,followedbydevelopmentoftheembryo,takesplaceiftheeggisfertilized.
在卵子发生过程中,由卵巢中的性母细胞产生。卵母细胞进入减数分裂的抑制阶段。第
一次减数分裂产生一个成熟卵。如果卵受精,那么第二次减数分裂伴随胚胎的发育。
Egllyall
developinganimalovaaresurroundedbyhelpercells,eitherfolliclecellsornursecells.
Dependingonthespecies,eggsalsostorevaryingamountsofyolk,areservoirofnutrients
producedbydigestive-glandcellsinthemother\'y,folliclecellsorcellsofthe
maternaloviductprovideprotectivecoatingsfortheegg,includingalbumen(eggwhite)and
varioustypesofoutermembranesandshells.
品种间卵的大小变化很大,并且有复杂的结构。实际上,所有发育过程中的卵都辅助细
胞环绕,要么是滤泡细胞,要么是抚育细胞。依赖物种的不同而不同,卵黄贮备也不同,
即由母体消化腺细胞产生的营养储备。最后,滤泡或母体输卵管细胞产生保护性的卵膜,
包括清蛋白和各种外部膜及壳。
F
matu
quantitiesofmRNAmayalsobemadeandstored.
蛙卵母细胞作为卵母细胞发育的研究系统模型。在成熟过程中,通过基因扩增产生大量
的核糖体。同时也产生和储备了大量的mRNA。
Fertilization:InitiatingDevelopment
species
fertilizationisexternal;inothers(includingmostterrestrialanimals)ittakesplaceinternally.
Thefirstcontactofthespermheadwiththeegg\'sjellycoattriggerstheacrosomereaction,in
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55
whichenzymesarereleasedtodigestaholethroughtheegg\'sprotectivelayers,andtheplasma
membraneofthespermisbroughtintopositiontobindtotheovum\'usionof
theeggandspermplasmamembranes,thehaploidmalenucleuswithitschromosomesmoves
alsotriggerstheegg\'
spermandeggnucleiunite,
fertilizedeggisnowazygote.
雌雄配子结合作用称受精作用,发育开始。某些物种中,是外部受孕;另一些物种,包
括大部分陆生动物,是内部受孕。当精子和卵子的胶状膜发生接触时,触发了顶体反应。
释放多种酶而将卵保护膜消化出一个洞。精子的原生质膜与卵子的表面连接起来。精卵原
生质膜融合后,单倍体雄性核进入卵细胞质。融合也触发了最后的减数分裂。当精卵核结
合时,两套染色体混合产生一二倍体,即受精卵。
Theegg\'lly,
thereisatemporarychangeintheegg\'selectricalstate,al
stageofthereaction,therapidelevationofthefertilizationmembrane,preventsfurthersperm
penetration.
卵皮层阻止其他的精子进入,充当壁垒作用。开始时,卵电位发生暂时变化,卵细胞被
激活。反应最后阶段,受精卵的膜快速隆起,阻止更多精子进入。
d,parthenogenesistakesplace:theegg
isspontaneouslyactivatedandproceedstonormalembryonicdevelopment.
对某些物种而言,受精不是必须的。孤雌生殖,即卵自发地被激活并进入正常的胚胎发
育过程中。
Cleavage:AnIncreaseinCellNumber
Cleavage,themajordevelopmentaleventimmediatelyfollowingfertilization,isaspecial
formofcelldivision(mitosis).Cleavageproducesablastula,asheetofcellsroundedintoa
rocess,thesingle-celledzygoteis
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56
dividedintomanysmallcells,andyolk,mRNA,ribosomes,andothermaterialsarcdistributed
lsoftheblastula,calledblastomeres,alsoeachreceivea
fulldiploidsetofchromosomes.
受精后,立即发生卵裂,细胞有丝分裂的特殊过程。卵裂产生一个囊胚,形成的细胞壁
球形排列形成一个空腔。在这个过程中,单细胞的受精卵分裂成许多小细胞,卵黄,mRNA,
核糖体和其他物质被精确分配到每个细胞中。这些囊胚细胞,称卵裂球,每个细胞都有一
套二倍体染色体组。
untofyolkpresentin
theeggisamajorfactorindeterminingthepattern:inspecieshavinglittleyolk(suchas
mammals)thezygotecleavescompletelythrough,formingcellsthatareroughlyequivalentin
s,inwhichtheegghassomewhatmoreyolk,cleavageproceedsmorerapidlyin
eggstheyolkissomassivethatcleavage
divisionsarerestrictedtoatinyareaofcytoplasm.
不同物种,卵裂方式不同。决定因素主要取决于卵黄的含量。含有少量卵黄的物种(例
如哺乳动物),合子分裂得很彻底,子细胞大致平均分裂。蛙卵,卵黄稍微多点,在胚胎
的卵黄较少区域发育更快些。鸟卵卵黄很大,卵裂被限制在细胞质很小区域内。
Inmanyspeciestheprecisedistributiontoblastomeresofmoleculardeterminantsinthe
cytopal
andbirdspeciesthefateofcellsisdeterminedbythepositionofacelllateincleavage.
细胞质中分子遗传因素精确分配到卵裂球中,对许多物种而言,是发育成胚中不同类型
细胞关键所在。对哺乳动物和鸟类而言,细胞的命运最终由细胞分裂后所处的位置决定的。
Gastrulation:RearrangementofCells(原肠胚:细胞重排列)
Therearrangementoftheblastulaintoathree-dimensionalorganismwithinner,middle,and
ultinggastrulaconsistsofanouterectoderm,
aninnerendoderm,andamesodermlayerpositionedbetweenthem.
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在原肠胚形成过程中,囊胚重新排列,形成包括内层,中层,外层的三围组织。最终原
肠胚由一个外肠胚,内肠胚,和一个中肠胚构成。
tionin
gastrulation,involvingthemovementofcellsintoendodermalandmesodermalpositions
throughthethickenedprimitivestreak,aroseinreptilesandcanstillbeseeninbirdand
mammalianembryos,lendingsupporttothetheorythatbirdsandmammalsevolvedfrom
reptiles.
每个胚层产生特殊的胚胎组织。密实的原肠胚通过细胞运动进入内胚层和中胚层,爬虫,
鸟,哺乳动物的胚胎都如此。因此提出这样的理论,鸟类和哺乳动物是由爬虫进化而来的。
Organogenesis:FormationofFunctionalTissuesandOrgans
Theorgansandtissuesoftheembryoariseduringorganogenesisascellsinsidetheembryo
genesisactuallyincludestwocloselylinked
processes,morphogenesiscellsandcell
populationschangeshape:anexampleisneurulationinvertebrateembryos,inwhichtheedges
oftheflatneuralplatefoldupwardandfuse,formingthebeginningsofthehollowbrainand
differentiationcellsmaturesothattheymayperformseparatefunctions.
Thismaturationmayincludetakingonafunction-relatedshape,suchasthelong,spindlyshape
fferentiationalsoresultsinresponsiveness-theabilityofacell
toberegulatedwithintheorganismthroughtheactionofhormones,neurons,andothersignals.
胚经过内部细胞和表面细胞特化后,器官形成,发育成器官和组织。器官形成实质上包
括两个联系紧密的过程,即形态发生和分化。在形态发生期间,细胞和细胞群体形状发生
改变:例如,脊椎动物的神经胚,扁平神经板的边缘向上折叠并融合,是中空大脑和脊髓
神经形成的开端。在分化期间,细胞成熟,执行各自功能。成熟包括功能相关的成型过程。
例如,细长的骨骼肌肉细胞。细胞分化也产生应答能力,即细胞受生物体内激素,神经和
其他信号的调控过程。
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EmbryonicCoveringsandMembranes
Theembryosoflandvertebratesareenclosedwithinfourextraembryonicmembranesthat
affordprotectionwhilestillpermittingtheexchangeofgases,nutrients,andothermaterials.
脊椎动物的胚胎被4层膜包被,起保护作用,但仍能交换气体,营养和其他物质。
Growth:IncreaseinSize
Growthinembryosislargelyduetoanincreaseinthenumberofcellsratherthantoan
speciestheextentofembryonicgrowthis
limitedbytheavailabilityoffood(yolk).Inanimalsthatdevelopentirelyfreeofthematernal
body,suchasfrogsandinsects,theembryogiverisetoalarvalstagethatcanfeeditselfand
speciesthemostspectacular
growthph
growthgenerallystopsoncetheorganismreachesitstypicaladolescentphasesofthelifecycle.
Actualgrowthgenerallystopsoncetheorganismreachesitstypicaladultsize,although
replacementofdeadcellsmaycontinue.
胚的生长很大程度取决于细胞数量的增加而不是单个细胞大小的改变。在大多数物种
中,胚的生长是受卵黄的量限制的。在动物细胞中,完全依赖于母体,例如蛙和昆虫,胚
产生幼虫状态,后来经历变态而进入成年状态。在许多物种中,在少年和青春期,发生特
别显著的生长。一旦细胞进入成年状态和成年大小,生长就停止了,尽管死细胞的替代不
断发生。
Aspecialtypeofgrowth,regenerationoflostbodyparts,cantakeplaceinadultsofsome
losetheirfunctionalphenotype,dividerapidly,andgenerateapopulationofcellsthatwill
satoryhypertrophyisadifferent,temporarygrowthresponse
inwhichresidualtissueincreasesinmassandcellnumber:cellsundergomitosisbutdonot
dedifferentiate.
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一个特殊类型的生长,再生失去的部分躯体,发生在某些物种的成体中。在再生之前,
残肢组织细胞经历了去分化过程。他们失去功能表型,快速分裂,产生细胞群来再生失去
的部分。代偿式肥大是一个不同的,暂时的生长应答过程,残余组织在体积和细胞数量上
增加:细胞经历了减数分裂,但没有去分化过程。
AgingandDeath:FinalDevelopmentalProcesses
Agingisanongoing,time-dependentdevelopmentalprocessinwhichbodypartsdeteriorate.
Proposedcausesincludethedegenerationofcollagen(thefibrousproteinsoftheconnective
tissues)heoriesfocusonadeclineof
theimmunesystemorontheaccumulationoflipofuscins(agingpigments).
老化是一个持续过程,随时间发育,身体部分恶化。可能原因包括胶质的退化(纤维蛋
白)和能分裂活细胞的限制。另外理论认为,免疫系统的免疫下降或脂褐素的堆积造成的。
课后习题:阅读材料一
Glossary
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sperm精细胞
Cellsthatdevelopfromthespermatidsby
losingmuchoftheircytoplasmand
developinglongtails;themalegamete.
ovum卵,卵子(复数,ova)
Anunfertilizednon-motilefemalegamete.
Inmanyanimalsitisproducedintheovary.
spermatogenesis精子发生
Thespecificnamegiventothegametogenesis
processthatleadstotheformationofsperm.
oogenesis卵子发生-
Thespecificnamegiventothegametogenesis
processthatleadstotheformationofeggs.
ovaries卵巢,子房
Thefemalesexorganstheproducehaploid
sexcells,theeggsorova.
yolk卵黄,蛋黄
Thestoreoffoodmaterial,mostlyproteinand
fat,thatispresentintheeggsofmostanimals
oviduct输卵管
Thetube(fallopiantube)thatcarriesthe
primaryoocytetotheuterus.
geneamplification基因扩增
Atemporarydramaticincreaseinthenumbers
ofaparticulargeneinagenomeduringone
developmentalperiod.
fertilization受精
Thejoiningofhaploidnuclei,usuallyfroman
eggandaspermcell,resultinginadiploidcell
calledthezygote.
Zygote受精卵
Adiploidcellthatresultsfromtheunionofan
eggandasperm.
acrosomereaction顶体反应
Thatseriesofobservable,structuralchanges
undergonebyaspermwheninthevicinityof
ically,many
openingsappearinthespermheadmembrane,
throughwhichthecontentsoftheacrosome
appeartobereleased.
parthenogenesis[\'pa:einE]u\'d3enisis]单性生
殖,孤雌生殖
Reproductioninwhicheggsdevelopnormally
withoutbeingfertilizedbyamalegamete,
producinganindividualusuallygenetically
identicaltotheparent.
cleavage卵裂
Themitoticdivisionofthezygotethatoccurs
immediatelyafterfertilizationandproducesa
ballofsmallercellswithoutanoverall
increaseinsize.
blastula囊胚,囊胚泡
Thestageoftheearlyanimalembryothat
succeedscleavageandprecedesgastrulation.
Ablastulaisusuallymadeupofahollowball
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ofcells,withawallonetoseveralcellsthick;
thecentralcavityistheblastocoel.
blastomere卵裂球
Oneofseveralsmallcellsformedfroman
animalzygoteduringcleavage.
gastrulation原肠胚形成
Theprocessintheanimalembryobywhicha
blastulaisconvertedintoagastrula,withthe
layingdownofthegermlayers.
gastrula原肠胚
Thestageinthedevelopmentofanimal
embryosthatfollowstheblastulaandresults
lsofagastrulaare
differentiatedintothegermlayersandthe
centralcavityopenstotheexteriorbythe
blastopore.
ectoderm外胚层,内层
Theoutermostofthegermlayersofmetazoan
lopsmainlyintoepidermal
tissue,thenervoussystem,senseorgans,and
(inlowerforms)thenephridia.
endoderm内胚层,内层
Theinnermostofthegermlayersofmetazoan
embryos.
Mesoderm中胚层,中层
Themiddlelayerofthethreegermlayersof
lops
intocartilage,bone,muscle,blood,kidneys,
andgonads.
primitivestreak原肠胚
Alongitudinalbandofembryonicmesodermal
cellsthatdevelopswithinadorsalgroove
alongthelengthofthegastrulaofmammals
andbirds.
organogenesis器官形成
Theformationoforgans.
morphogenesis形态发生,形态建成
Thedevelopmentalprocessesleadingtothe
characteristicmatureformofanorganismor
partofanorganism.
differentiation分化,鉴别
Thecomplexofchangesinvolvedinthe
progressivediversificationofthestructureand
agivenlineofcells,differentiationresultsina
continualrestrictionofthetypesof
transcriptionthateachcellcanundertake.
neurulation神经胚形成
Developmentalstageinanembryoduring
whichthecellsdifferentiateintothebrainand
spinalcord.
metamorphosis变态
Thetransformationfromlarvaltoadultform.
regeneration再生
Thereplacementbyanorganismoftissuesor
organsthathavebeenlost.
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dedifferentiation去分化,脱分化
Thelossofdifferentiation,asinthevertebrate
limbstumpduringformationofablastema.
compensatoryhypertrophy代偿式肥大
Seeregeneration.
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LessonNine
TheOriginofSpecies
教学目的:使学生了解物种起源相关理论,使学生掌握相关专业词汇以及主要
用法。
教学重点:物种起源相关理论及相关英语词汇的掌握。
教学难点:专业英语词汇的记忆
讲授方法:以学生翻译为主,老师讲解相关专业知识辅助学生理解
授课时间:5月31日
教学内容:
HowBiologistsDefineaSpecies
Modernbiologygenerallydefineaspeciesasgroupofactuallyorpotentiallyinterbreeding
sofaspeciescan
interbreedwitheachother,buttheycannotbreedwithorganismsbelongingtoanotherspecies.
Oneadv,
however,l
reproducers,includingmostprokaryotes,manyplants,andsomeanimals,mustbeclassifiedinto
speciesonthebasisofphysical(biochemicalormorphological)traits.
现代生物学大体将物种定义为实际上的一群或潜在的杂交群体,即从这个群体隔离繁殖
的后代。种族中个体可以互相交配,但种间不能。这种繁殖隔离的一个优势是很精确。但
仅适用于性繁殖的生物。非性繁殖,包括大多数原核生物,许多植物,某些动物,需要通
过自然特征进行归类。
PreventingGeneExchange
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64
Twogeneraltypesofmechanismsoperatetoblocktheexchangeofgenesbetweenindividuals
stgeneraltypeismadeupofprezygoticisolatingmechanismsthat
oticisolationfallsintotwocategories:ecologicaland
irstcase,tworelatedgroupmaybecomeadaptedtoslightlydifferent
me,thesegeneticdifferences
becvioral
isolation,relatedgroupsevolvedifferingbehaviorssuchasspecificmatingrituals-thatrestrict
theexchangeofgenestomembersofthesamegroup.
两种基因型机制阻碍了相关群体中个体的基因交换。第一种基因型由前合子机械隔离机
制阻止合子的生成。前合子隔离分两类:生态学的和行为学的。第一种情况,两个相关群
体可能分别适应稍微不同的环境,如土壤类型或食物来源的变化。长时间,这些遗传差异
变得很大而很难异体受精。而行为学隔离,相关的群组进化成不同的行为方式,例如,结
婚仪式,从而限制了同群成员基因交流。
Sometimesthedifferencesthatproduceprezygoticisolationinvolvemechanicalisolation.
Thatis,matingisphysicallyimpossiblebetweenmembersofdifferentspeciesbecausegenitals
ofmalesandfemalesarestructurallyincompatibleorbecausemoleculesonthesurfacesof
typeofprezygoticmechanismistemporalisolation,in
whichtime-relatedenvironmentalcuesthattriggerreproductiveprocessesaredifferentfor
relatedspecies.
有时,产生前合子隔离的差异涉及了隔离机制。即,由于生殖器结构不匹配或精卵分子
表面不结合而使不同种群成员间不能自然结合。最后一类前合子机制是暂时隔离,与时间
有关的环境因素触发了相关物种的不同繁殖过程。
Inpostzygoticisolatingmechanismsmatingoccur,buttheresultinghybridorganismis
cialcaseofhybridsterilitytermedhybridbreakdown,thesecond
anstthisfact
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withtheverydifferentoutcomeofcrossbreedingbetweentwogeneticallydistantmembersof
thesamespecies,wheretheresultisoftenheterozygoteadvantage(hybridvigor).
在合子后隔离机制中,匹配可以进行,但或不产生杂种或杂种不育。杂种不育在某些特
殊情况下,是指第二代或以后几代显示出杂交繁殖能力的降低。正是同种远基因成员间的
杂交产生不同的结果,而产生杂种优势。
Populationsofaspeciesthatarespreadoutoverabroadgeographicalrangeareoftenarrayed
inacline-agradualchangeinoneormorecharacteristicsaseachpopulationevolvesadaptations
cline,subspecieswithdistinctcharacteristicsmayarise.
Often,individualsateitherendofaclinearereproductivelyisolated.
地域上分布很广的种的群体中,经常存在变异群,因为适应当地的环境,每个群体逐渐
产生一个或多个与众不同的特点。在变异群中,带有明显特征的亚群可能产生。通常,在
两个变异群中的个体是繁殖隔离的。
BecomingaSpecies:HowGenePoolsBecomeIsolated
ErnstMayr\'smodelofallopatricspeciationproposesthatspeciescanoriginateinatwo-stage
irststage,populationsofexistingspeciesareseparatedbyaphysicalor
ult,overtimegeneticdifferencesleadingtopre-orpostzygotic
econdstage,thedivergedpopulationsmayagain
happens,speciationbecomescompletethroughtheactionofnatural
selection.
异地物种形成模型认为,物种可能起源于两个阶段。第一阶段,已经存在的物种群体可
能由于自然或地理屏障被隔离。结果,长时间后,在两个群体间遗传差异导致前合子或后
合子隔离的产生。第二阶段,这些趋异群体可能再次接触,物种发生可能通过自然选择发
生。
TheGeneticBasesofspeciation
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Theextentofdifferencesbetweenpopulationsthataredivergingintoseparatespeciesor
betweenspeciesthathavealreadydivergedisrepresentedbyastatisticcalledgenetic
identity-therelativeproportionofthesamestructuralgenespresentinmembersofgroupsbeing
ral,biologistsbelievethatthegeneticeventsleadingtospeciationtakeplace
ewspecieshasarisen,ittendstodivergegeneticallyfromrelatedspeciesat
cases,suchastheprimateorder,majordifferencesinbodyform
sledBiologiststo
hypothesizethatsmallchangesinregulatorygenesmayaccountformanyofthelarge-scale
changesresponsibleforsepciationandtheoriginofhighertaxonomicgroups.
能够趋异的群体或已经趋异的物种,他们之间差异的扩大,由一个稳定的遗传识别代表。
即在可比群体成员中相同基因所占相关比例。大体而言,生物学家相信,遗传导致的物种
形成是逐渐发生的。在某些情况下,身体主要差别并不能反映结构基因的趋异,生物学家
因此提出,调控基因很少的改变可能导致很大规模物种改变和更高分类学上群体的产生。
Onemechanismthatmayrapidlysplitpopulationsgeneticallyispolyploidization—thesudden
nresultinsympatric
speciation,inwhichnewspeciesariseeventhoughnogeographicalisolationhastakenplace.
Aphenomenonsimilartopolyploidizationinvolvingtherearrangementofchromosomeshas
y,speciescanoriginate
inavarietyofways.
遗传学上可以快速分离群体的一个机制是多倍体,一个完全互补染色体组的突然倍增。
结果导致同域物种形成,即使没有地理隔离也会产生新的物种。与多倍体相似的一个现象
是染色体重排,可以解释巨大熊猫的进化起源。显然,物种可以以多种方式进化。
ExplainingMacroevolution:Higher-orderChanges
Thechangesthatgeneratespeciesaresometimestermedmicroevolution;thosethatproduce
themajorphenotypicdifferencesthatseparategenera,classes,orders,andsoonaretermed
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67
r
casesnesof
descentoverevolutionarytimeareconstructed,theresultisaphylogeny.
遗传物种的改变有时称微进化;那些产生很大差异用来区分属,纲,目的表型变化称大
幅进化。某些品系的后代可以通过化石追根溯源。而其他相关性可以通过现存活体的比较
来推论。当品系后代以进化钟构建时,形成系统发育树。
Therationaleforbuildingaphylogenyissimple:itassumesthatsimilaritiesinbodystructure,
biochemistry,reproductivestrategies,andotherfeaturesoforganismscanbeusedtotracelines
cessiscomplexbecauseevolutionproceedsindifferentpatterns.
Incasesofparallelevolution,ergent
evolution,verydistantlyrelatedlineagesbecomemorealikeassimilaradaptationstakeholdin
milarstructuresindifferentorganismsmay
reflecthomology(derivationfromacommonancestor)oranalogy(independentoriginof
structuresusedforsimilarpurposes).
建立系统发育树的基本理论很简单:把身体结构,生物化学,繁殖策略以及其他特征相
似的生物划分进同一个品系。这个过程很复杂,因为进化经历不同模式。就平行进化而言,
两个或更多的血统沿相似品系进化。在相似生存条件下,亲源关系很远的血统也可能更相
似。不同生物间的相似结构可能说明它们具有同源性。
Oneofthemostcommonevolutionarypatternsthatcanbeconstructedfromthefossilrecord
presentedbythebranchingandrebranchingofa
rcommonfeatureofevolutionisextinction-thecompletelossofaspecies
tinctionshaveoccurredatleastfivetimesintheearth\'shistory.
从化石证据构建的最普通进化模式是趋异进化。由分支和次级分支的简单线条代替。另
一个进化的共同特征是灭绝。地球历史中至少发生过5次大规模的灭绝。
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Gapsinthefossilrecordhaveledsomepaleontologiststoproposethepunctuated
oryholdsthatevolutionproceedsbyspurts-radical
changesovershort(ingeologicaltime)periodsoftime-withinterveningperiodsofequilibrium.
Thetheoryiscontroversialandtendsnottobesupportedwhenanabundantfossilrecordis
available.
化石证据上的断代使古生物学家们提出间断平衡进化理论。这个理论认为进化在短期内
经历了根本突变,中间又介入均衡阶段。这个理论很有争议,一旦发现丰富的化石证据,
理论就难支撑了。
TheRoleofmicroevolutioninMacroevolution
Biologistshavenocertainanswerstoanumberofquestionsaboutlarge-scaleevolutionary
uestionsrangefromwhethernovelhighertaxaresultfromas-yetundescribed
radicalgeneticprocesses,towhetherknownprocessessuchasgeneticdriftandsmallgene
changescanplausiblyaccountfortheevolutionofnewgenera,families,andorders.
Investigatorsareexploringtheseareasusingtraditionalmethodsaswellasthenewertechniques
ofmolecularbiology.
生物学家还无法回答关于大规模进化的许多问题。许多问题是新类别的物种可能起源于
还不确定的遗传过程,或者知道遗传过程,例如,遗传漂移和少量基因的改变可能是新属,
科,目产生的原因。科研工作者不但利用传统方法对这些领域进行研究,还利用分子生物
学新科技。
Glossary
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hybridsterility杂种不育性
Thefailureofhybridsbetweendifferent
speciestoproduceviableoffspring.
cline梯度变异,变异群
Asmoothgradationofcharacteristicsfrom
oneendoftherangeofaspeciestotheother,
usuallybroughtaboutbygradientsofclimate,
soil,orotherenvironmentalvariables.
allopatricspeciation异域物种形成,异地
物种形成
Thedevelopmentofdistinctspeciesthrough
differentiationofpopulationsingeographic
isolation.
sympatricspeciation同域物种形成,同
地物种形成
Speciationthatfollowsafterecological,
behavioral,orgeneticbarriersarisewithinthe
n
happeninstantaneously,aswhenpolyploidy
arisesinatypeoffloweringplantthatcan
self-fertilizeorreproduceasexually.
microevolution微进化,种内进化
Changesinallelefrequenciesbroughtabout
bymutation,geneticdrift,geneflow,and
naturalselection.
macroevolution宏观进化,大进化,种外进
化
Thelarge-scalepatterns,trends,andratesof
changeamonggroupsofspecies.
phylogeny种系发生,系统发生,系统发育
Evolutionaryrelationshipsamongspecies,
startingwithmostancestralformsand
includingthebranchesleadingtotheir
descendants.
parallelevolution平行进化
Theevolutionoforganismsthatwere
originallyverysimilarandhavebothevolved
inthesamedirection.(Contrastwith
convergentevolution)
convergentevolution趋同进化
Anevolutionarypatterninwhichwidely
differentorganismsshowsimilar
characteristics.
Homology同源性,同种性,同系性
Asimilaritybetweentwostructuresthatisdue
structuresaresaidtobehomologous.
(Contrastwithanalogy)
analogy相似,同功
Aresemblanceinfunction,andoften
appearanceaswell,betweentwostructures
whichisduetoconvergenceinevolution
ratherthantocommonancestry.(Contrast
withhomology)
divergentevolution趋异进化
Abasicevolutionarypatterninwhich
individualspeciationeventscausemany
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70
branchesintheevolutionagroupof
organisms.
extinction灭绝,熄灭,消失
Ingenetics,inhibitionoftheexpressionof
differentiatedpropertiesinhybridcellsfrom
differentiatedandundifferentiatedparental
cells.
punctuatedequilibrium间断平衡
Evolutionarytheorythatholdsthat
morphologicalchangesoccurrapidlyintime;
duringspeciationthesechangesoccurinsmall
populationswiththeresultingnewspecies
speciation,speciesretainmuchthesameform
untilextinction;distinctfromthephyletic
gradualismtheory.
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71
LessonTen
TheEcologyofPopulations
教学目的:使学生了解物种群体生态学相关理论,使学生掌握马尔萨斯人口理
论及相关专业词汇和主要用法。
教学重点:马尔萨斯人口理论及相关英语词汇的掌握。
教学难点:专业英语词汇的记忆
讲授方法:以学生翻译为主,老师讲解相关专业知识辅助学生理解
授课时间:5月31日
教学内容:
PopulationGrowth
Populations-groupsofindividualsbelongingtothesamespecies-allhavethreevery
significantstatisticalcharacteristics:percapitabirthrateornatality;percapitadeathrateor
motality;andnumberofindividualsperunitareaordensity.
种群中的每个个体都属于同一个物种,具有三个非常显著的统计学特征:出生率;死亡
率;种群密度。
AsfirstdescribedbyMalthus,apopulationtheoreticallycangrowexponentially
(geometrically)iftherearenolimitsonresourcessuchasfoodorhidingplacesandnopredation
(dition
exponentialgrowthrarelyoccurinnature,itelevelsofresourcesinany
environmentsetanupperlimittopopulationsize—termedcarryingcapacity(K)—thatcanbe
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72
ticgrowthcurveplotstheleveling-offofgrowth
whenpopulationsizereachesequilibriumwithavailableresources.
马尔萨斯首次阐述了人口理论,他指出,如果没有类似于食物,庇护所等资源的限制,
没有被捕食,群体总量的增长符合指数或几何关系。即指数生长曲线。但,这种指数生长
在自然界中很少发生。环境中有限的资源限制了群体规模,即环境的容纳量,只能接近而
不能超过。当群体规模接近可获得资源的最大平衡态时,逻辑生长曲线呈现负增长。
Whenresourcelimitsareapproachedorexceeded,timeisrequiredforthebirthratetofalland
e
natural
populations,carryingcapacity(andhencepopulationsize)
populationdrasticallyexceedsthecarryingcapacityofitsenvironmenttemporarily,damagemay
occurthatpermanentlylowersenvironmentalcarryingcapacity.
当接近或超过资源限制时,出生率下降,死亡率升高。这段时期称繁殖滞后时期。这种
群体数量的波动存在于每一个群体中。在自然群体中,群体数量随季节波动。若暂时超出
环境的容纳量,可能造成对环境持久的伤害而保持很低的容纳量。
Besidesenvironmentalcarryingcapacity,apopulation\'sagestructureandreproductive
ucturereflectstherelative
numbersofyoung,middle-aged,ulation
havingmanymembersatornearingreproductiveage,
structuremayalsoberepresentedbyasurvivorshipcurve.
除环境容纳量外,群体的年龄结构和繁殖方式也影响群体增长率。年龄结构反映中青老
的比例关系。若生育年龄的比例大,则显著增长。存活曲线也可以反映年龄结构。
Thereproducingmembersofapopulationfollowacomplexadaptivereproductivestrategy
uctivestrategiesgenerallyfitintooneoftwo
categories:ection
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73
individualsreachreproductiveagequicklyandproducemanyoffspring.,Eachoffspringissmall
hemanyproduced,onlyafewwill
ection,astrategyrelatedtoenvironmentalcarrying
capacityandtheneedtocompeteforresource,individualsmatureslowlyandproducefew
r,parentsinvestagreatdealofresourcesineachoffspring;andafteralong
periodofgrowthtolargesize,eachoffspring\'schancesofsurvivaluntilreproductiveageare
high.
几千年来,进化形成两个繁殖策略,一是繁殖周期快,后代数量多,每个后代小并可获
得资源少。仅有少量存活到生育年龄。一是和环境的容纳量及可匹配资源有关,个体成熟
慢并产生很少的后代。但,父母给后代提供很多资源,需要很长的生长期,存活到生育年
龄的机遇很高。
LimitsonPopulationSize
rpopulationdensityis
highorlow,
distributionpatternsincludeclumped,uniform,veconsequencesareoften
attachedtohigh(orrising)ensity-dependentfactorsinclude
increasedpredation,parasitism,disease,andintraspecificandinterspecificcompetition.
Populationsizemayalsobereducedbydensityindependentfactors,acategorythatincludes
naturalcatastrophes.
群体的规模也可以用密度来衡量。不论群体密度高与低,群体中个体的分布是不均一的。
通用分布模式包括群体的,均匀的,随机的。密度依赖因子包括增加了的捕食,寄生,疾
病,种内竞争和种间竞争。群体规模也可因为密度无关因子而降低,包括自然灾难。
Theinter
populationssometimescycleregularlybetweengrowthanddecline,inpartfromtheeffectsof
ral,predationmaysloworstopthegrowthofapreypopulation
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74
weak,sick,orveryyoung
preyaretaken,theeffectofpredationonthedensityofthepopulationasawholemaybeslight.
捕食和被捕食的相互复杂关系影响着群体的规模。例如群体规模规律的增长和下降,部
分是由于繁殖滞后期的影响。总的来说,当被捕食的是能繁殖的个体时,可能减慢或停止
群体的增长。反之,影响就很微弱。
Anareaofcontroversyamongecologistsisthequestionofwhetherspeciesdiversityina
communitytends
aspectofthisargumentisthehypothesisthatacomplexfoodwebismorestablethanasimple
re,however,manystable,highlydiversecommunitiesarecharacterizedbythe
ethatstableenvironmentsbegetdiversity
becausetheyallowrarespeciestopersist.
生物学家一直在争论,是否是物种差异产生稳定性还是稳定性促成了物种差异。一种假
设认为,复杂的食物链要比简单的食物链更稳定。实际上,许多稳定的,高差异的社会群
体是由众多简单食物链支撑的。可能是稳定的环境引起差异,它只允许很少的物种存留。
HowPopulationsAreDistributed
Justascompetition,predation,andotherelementsinteracttodeterminethesizeofa
populationwithinacommunity,populationdistributionistheresultofmanyinterrelatedfactors.
Overall,thedistributionofapopulationinitspotentialrangedependsonlocationsoffoodand
suitablehabitat,interspecificcompetitionforresources,lants,
oneofthemosteffectiveformsofinterspecificcompetitionforresourcesisallelopathy.
Amongspeciesthatsharesimilaroridenticalhabitatniches,resourcepartitioningisoftenseen.
Incharacterdisplacement,closelyrelatedspecieshaveevolvedphysicaldifferencesinbody
ally,suchsolutionstotheneedfor
dividingupascarceresourcemayleadtospeciation.
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75
正如竞争,捕食,和其他因素相互作用影响着群体大小,群体分布是许多相关因子相互
作用的结果。总之,潜在的群体分布取决于食物的位置和稳定的住所,种间对资源的竞争,
以及其他可变因素。对于大多数植物,种间最有效的资源竞争是异种相生相克关系。许多
物种分享相似或相同的生存环境,而进行资源划分。对于特征替换,关系更近的物种已经
在进化过程产生了很大体证差异。最终,这种对珍贵资源的划分方式可能导致物种形成。
HumanPopulation:ACaseStudyinExponentialGrowth
Theawesomerateofincreasethatisnowafeatureofthehumanpopulationstartedabout
10,time,worldhumanpopulationis
estimatedtohavetotaled133millionpeople;todayithasreachedastaggering5billion.
Viewedonagraph,thisincreasecloselyresemblestheclassicalexponentialgrowthcurve-a
growthpatternthatcannotbesustained.
自从1万年前农业革命以来,人类人口以惊人的速度增长着。当时,世界人口估计在133
百万;今天已经达到50亿。几乎接近典型的指数增长曲线,一个不稳定的增长模式。
Whilethebirthrateinmanydevelopedcountrieshasslowed,itremainshighinlesswell
apherspredictthat,ifthisratecontinues,thehuman
populat
biologistsbelievethattheearth\'y,we
humansfaceaseriousprobleminmanagingtheearth\'spreciousresourceswhilesustainingsuch
ahighpopulationdensity.
尽管许多发达国家的出生率降低,但也有高出生率的。人口统计学预测,若出生率持续
增加,21世纪末世界人口将达到300亿。然而,生物学家普遍认为,地球的容纳量仅为100
亿。显然答韦中立论师道书翻译 ,人类将面临严重的考验,如何利用如此珍贵的资源维持如此高的人口密度。
Glossary
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76
natality出生率
Thenumberofindividualsenteringthe
populationbyreproductionperthousand
individualsinthepopulation.
mortality死亡率
Thenumberofindividualsleavingthe
populationbydeathperthousandindividuals
inthepopulation.
exponentialgrowthcurve指数生长曲线
Patternofpopulationgrowthinwhichgreater
andgreaternumbersofindividualsare
producedduringthesuccessivedoubling
times;thepatternthatemergeswhentheper
capitabirthrateremainsevenslightlyabove
thepercapitadeathrate,puttingasidethe
effectsofimmigrationandemigration.
carryingcapacity容纳量,携带量,负载力
Themaximumnumberofindividualsina
population(orspecies)thatcanbesustained
indefinitelybyagivenenvironment.
logisticgrowthcurve逻辑生长曲线
Patternofpopulationgrowthinwhichalow
densitypopulationslowlyincreasesinsize,
goesthrougharapidgrowthphase,thenlevels
offoncethecarryingcapacityisreached.
agestructure年龄结构
Ofapopulation,thenumberofindividualsin
eachofseveralormanyagecategories.
populationdensity种群密度,群体密度
Thenumberofindividualsofapopulationthat
arelivinginaspecifiedareaorvolume.
density-dependentfactors密度依赖因子,密
度制约因子
population-limitingfactorsthatbecomemore
effectiveasthesizeofthepopulation
increases.
intraspecificcompetition种内竞争
Interactionamongindividualsofthesame
speciesthatarecompetingforthesame
resources.
interspecificcompetition种间竞争
Two-speciesinteractioninwhichbothspecies
canharmedduetooverlappingniches.
density-independentfactors密度无关因子,
非密度制约因子
Population-controllingfactorsthatarenot
relatedtothesizeofthepopulationincreases.
allelopathy种间感应现象,异种相克相成
Achemicalinteractionbetweenorganismsin
whichoneorganismsuppressesthe
germination,growth,orreproductionofthe
otherbyreleasingtoxinsintotheenvironment.
Itoccursparticularlybetweenfreshwater
animals,floweringplants,bacteria,andfungi.
survivorshipcurve存活曲线,生存曲线
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77
Aplotoftheage-specificsurvivalofagroup
ofindividualsinagivenenvironment,from
thetimeoftheirbirthuntilthelastonedies
characterdisplacement特征替换
Analterationofthetraitsofaspeciesasa
resultofcompetitionorotherinteractionswith
associatedspecies.
课后作业:第一篇阅读材料
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